"W5Si5iBaiSS««»^ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MASSACHUSETTS! 
LIBRARY 

SPECIAL 
COLLECTION:. 

S 
685 

1868 


LIBRARY 


m*  •ootk-^uift   ■  ft    •t»T     or    Ml.  Wii 


REPORT 


ON    THE 


TEIAL  OF  PLOWS, 


HELD  AT  UTICA, 


BY  THE  N.Y.  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 


Commencing  September  8t7i,  1867* 


WITH  A  SUPPLEMENT  SHOWING   THE  RESULTS   OF  A  SPECIAL   TRIAL  AT 

BRATTLEBORO,  TO  DETERMINE  SEVERAL  DISPUTED  QUESTIONS 

RESPECTING  THE  ACTION  OP  THE  PLOW. 


ALBANY: 

PRINTING  HOUSE  OF  VAN  BENTHUYSEN  &  SONS. 

1868. 


r 

'S  o 


£1 
M4Q 


REPORT  ON  TRIALS  OF  PLOWS. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER. 

In  presenting  their  REroRT  on  the  Trials  of  Plows,  held  at 
Utica,  under  the  auspices  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society,  the  Board  of  Judges  will  not  be  required  to  spend  much 
time  in  insisting  on  the  value  of  that  implement,  or  in  proving  its 
influence  upon  the  welfare  of  society  at  large. 

It  is  so  generally  acknowledged,  that  it  has  passed  into  a  maxim, 
if  not  into  an  axiom,  that  the  plow  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all 
wealth,  and  is  the  basis  of  all  civilization.  Like  other  truths  of 
a  similar  character,  which  are  received  without  hesitation  and 
without  inquiry,  it  is  believed  that  the  real  value  of  the  imple- 
ment is  obscured  by  haze  and  mist  in  most  minds,  and  that  a  few 
remarks  upon  this  subject  will  not  be  wasted  if  they  serve  to  give 
greater  sharpness  of  delineation  to  this  idea  of  its  primacy  among 
agricultural  implements. 

Its  use  dates  back  to  a  very  remote  antiquity.  It  is  now  gen- 
erally admitted  by  Biblical  critics  that  the  Book  of  Job  is  the 
most  ancient  writing  contained  within  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Yet  this  ancient  work  begins  with  an  allusion  to  it:  "And 
there  came  a  messenger  unto  Job,  and  said,  The  oxen  were 
ploughing  and  the  asses  feeding  beside  them;  and  the  Sabcans 
fell  upon  them,  and  took  them  away;  yea,  they  have  slain  the 
servants  with  the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  I  only  am  escaped  alone 
to  tell  thee." — Job  i,  14,  15.  In  our  History  of  the  Plow  we 
have  given  copies  of  sculptures  on  ancient  monuments  which  date 
back  four  thousand  years. 

It  is  certainly  strange,  in  view  of  the  importance  and  the  anti- 
quity of  the  plow,  that  its  construction  should  have  received  so 
little  attention  from  scientific  men,  and  the  principles  upon  which 
it  acts  should  have  been  so  little  observed  b}'  those  who  habil.u- 


4  Report  on  Trials  of  Flows. 

ally  use  it.  The  only  special  treatise  upon  it,  known  to  us,  is  the 
work  of  Small,  which  was  published  late  in  the  last  century,  and 
even  that  tells  us  very  little  of  its  history,  or  its  theory,  being 
mainly  devoted  to  practical  details. 

The  census  of  the  United  States  for  the  year  1860  gives  the 
immber  of  acres  of  improved  land  in  the  United  States,  but  unfor- 
tunately we  are  not  told  how  many  acres  are  in  grass,  or  how 
many  under  tillage. 

We  know,  however,  that  in  New  York  about  two-thirds  of  the 
improved  lands  of  the  State  is  in  grass,  and  that  in  the  State  of 
Ohio  about  one-third  of  the  improved  lands  is  in  grass.  The 
averao^e  ratio  of  the  G^rass  to  the  tillage  land  in  these  States  is, 
therefore,  as  1:1;  or  half  of  the  whole  of  the  improved  lands  are 
under  tillage  in  these  two  States.  If  we  may  assume  that  this  is 
the  proportion  throughout  the  Union,  then,  since  there  are  163,- 
110,720  acres  of  imiJ roved  lands,  one-half  of  the  amount,  namel}', 
81,555,360  acres  are  under  tillage,  or  say,  in  round  numbers, 
80,000,000  acres.  As  Ohio  and  New  York  are  the  chief  grass- 
raising  states,  it  is  probable  that  the  average  tillage  in  the  other 
states  is  still  greater  than  it  is  in  them;  but  at  all  events,  our  esti- 
mate would  not  seem  to  be  an  exaggerated  one.  If  now  we 
assume  that  every  plow  turns  over  fifty  acres  annually,  it  will 
require  one  million  five  hundred  thousand  plows  to  accomplish 
the  Avork;  and  if  a  plow  lasts  on  an  average  eight  years,  it  will 
take  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  thousand  five  hundred  new 
plows  every  year  to  supply  the  demands  of  our  countr}'-,  without 
referring  to  the  large  number  exported  to  foreign  countries. 

There  are  833,412  farmers  in  the  United  States  who  own  from 
three  to  fifty  acres,  and  1,121,602  who  cultivate  farms  between 
fifty  and  one  thousand  acres  each.  Or,  there  are  1,955,012  inde- 
pendent cultivators  of  the  soil.  The  above  calculation  would 
agree  with  a  purchase  of  one  new  plow  by  each  cultivator  every 
tenth  year. 

The  number  of  establishments  in  the  United  States  for  the 
manufficture  of  plows,  harrows  and  cultivators,  is  four  hundred 
and  twenty-three,  and  the  total  value  of  these  products  is  $2,855,- 
248.  If  we  suppose  that  one-third  of  this  value  is  to  be  deducted 
for  harrows  and  cultivators,  it  will  leave  $1,903,499  as  the  value 
of  the  plows  manufactured  annually;  and  if  Ave  assume  that  the 
average  value  of  each  plow  is  ten  dollars,  we  shall  have  a  result 
which  varies  very   slightly   from   the  estimate   we    have   given. 


Introductory  Chapter.  5 

Having,  therefore,  obtained  a  similar  result  by  tliree  dift'crcnt  and 
independent  processes,  we  may  with  some  confidence  assume,  as 
the  anmial  production,  187,500  plows  for  domestic  use. 

We  have  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  annual  value  of  the  plows 
made  in  this  country  and  exported  to  foreign  countries,  but,  from 
the  fact  that  all  the  agricultural  implements  exported  are  given 
in  the  official  tables  under  one  head,  without  any  attempt  to  spe- 
cify the  number  and  value  of  each  machine,  it  is  impossible  to 
ascertain  the  number  or  value  of  the  plows  exported.  The  Ames 
Plow  Company  have  for  several  years  exported  about  one  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars  worth  annually,  and  other  makers,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  revenue  officers,  export  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars  worth  more,  which  makes  the  whole  value  of  the  plows 
cxi)orted,  three  hundred  thousand  dollars.  It  is  believed  that 
the  value  of  this  export  might  easily  be  increased  ten-fold. 

The  plowing  of  the  land  under  cultivation  in  the  United  States 
requires,  according  to  our  estimate,  the  labor  of  one  million  teams 
of  either  oxen,  mules  or  horses  for  eighty  days  in  the  year;  and 
we  do  not  think  the  average  value  of  the  men  and  teams  required 
for  this  purpose  can  be  reckoned  at  less  than  two  and  an  half 
dollars  a  day  for  each  plow.  This  would  make  the  aggregate 
cost  of  the  plowing  in  each  year  to  be  $20,000,000. 

We  have  shown  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  that  there  is  a  difl'er- 
ence  of  power  required  to  perform  the  same  amount  of  work  by 
difierent  plows,  amounting  to  fort3^-six  per  cent,  as  shown  by 
careful  trials  in  England,  and  to  forty-two  per  cent,  according  to 
the  trials  instituted  by  this  Society  in  1850. 

It  follows  from  this,  that  if  the  plow  having  the  least  draught 
was  brought  into  universal  use,  to  the  exclusion  of  those  which 
require  a  greater  power,  it  would  reduce  the  cost  of  plowing  in 
the  United  States  forty-two  per  cent,  or  it  would  reduce  it  from 
$20,000,000  to  $11,600,000,  leaving  $8,400,000  in  the  pockets  of 
the  farmers,  as  a  fund  to  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  taxes  or 
the  improvement  of  their  farms. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  same  number  of  men  and  teams  were 
employed  as  heretofore,  then  they  would  be  enabled  to  cultivate 
an  area  forty-two  per  cent  greater  with  the  same  expenditure  of 
power  that  they  now  employ;  that  is,  they  would  cultivate  an 
area  of  (113,000,000)  one  hundred  and  thirteen  millions  of  acres, 
without  any  more  expenditure  of  power  than  they  now  do  (80,- 
000,000)  eighty  millions  of  acres. 


6  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

The  annual  value  of  the  crops  produced  on  the  present  area  of 
plowed  land  in  the  United  States,  may  be  roughly  estimated  at 
($900,000,000)  nine  hundred  millions  of  dollars,  or  eleven  and  a 
quarter  dollars  per  acre. 

If,  by  the  use  of  better  plows,  we  can  increase  this  amount 
forty-two  per  cent,  the  aggregate  increase  would  he  ($378,000,- 
000)  three  hundred  and  seventy-eight  millions  of  dollars. 

We  do  not  mean  to  assert  that  this  sum  would  represent  the 
actual  increase  of  the  annual  value  of  the  products  of  agriculture, 
but  allowing  each  reader  to  make  the  deductions  which  he  may 
think  necessary  for  the  increased  cost  of  cultivating  this  increased 
area,  such  as  seed,  planting,  after-culture  and  gathering,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  use  of  the  best  form  of  the  plow  will  increase 
the  aggregate  profits  of  agriculture  to  an  extent  equal  to  the 
annual  national  internal  taxation  of  the  United  States. 

In  view  of  the  benefits  which  we  have  shown  will  result  from 
the  adoption  of  the  best  form  of  the  ploAv,  it  is  obvious  that  no 
amount  of  labor  or  expense  which  our  agricultural  societies  can 
bestow  upon  it  with  a  view  to  its  improvement,  will  be  misap- 
plied or  wasted. 

We  are  not  without  hopes  that  our  labors  to  this  end  at  Utica 
will  be  thought  by  our  agricultural  brethren  to  have  yielded 
some  good  fruits,  and  that  this  success  will  prove  a  suflicient 
stimulus  not  only  to  our  own  Society,  but  to  other  State  Socie- 
ties in  the  United  States,  to  continue  this  rigid  system  of  obser- 
vation until  all  the  laws  of  the  plow  shall  have  been  discovered 
and  accurately  stated  for  the  benefit  of  the  farmers  of  our  couiitiy. 


History  of  the  Plow. 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE  mSTORY  OF  THE  PLOW  IN  EUROPE. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  who  was  the  first  inventor  of  the  plow. 
The  earliest  records  speak  of  it  as  a  well-known  instrument  of 
husbandry,  and  we  are  therefore  left  to  conjecture  respecting  the 
origin  of  the  mellowing  of  land  to  fit  it  for  the  reception  of  seeds 
and  the  growth  of  grain. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  earth  must  have  observed,  at  a  very 
early  period  of  its  history,  that  ground  which  had  been  accident- 
ally loosened  bore  a  more  abundant  harvest;  the  rooting  of  hogs 
must  have  given  them  sufficient  examples  of  this,  if  nothing  else 
had  suo-wested  it  to  them. 

CO 

The  next  step,  after  they  had  become  fairly  conscious  of  this 
fact,  would  be  to  imitate  it  at  such  places  and  at  such  times  as 
experience  had  shown  them  was  most  desirable.  Probably  a 
sliarpened  stick  would  be  the  most  likely  instrument  to  suggest 
itself  to  their  minds;  then  they  would  widen  the  end  of  it,  sharp- 
ening it  to  a  chisel  edge  with  a  view  of  making  more  rapid  work. 

Man  in  the  hunter,  and  even  in  the  pastoral  state,  is  very  averse 
to  bodily  labor.  The  little  inventive  power  that  he  possesses 
will  surely  be  directed  to  the  making  of  contrivances  which  will 
i\'le:ise  him  from  bodily  toil.  While  working  the  land  with  his 
sharpened  ,s(ick,  with  his  mind  intent  upon  some  mode  of  amelio- 
ratinof  his  condilion,  he  sees  the  bulls  and  cows  g-razino^  on  the 
hillsides  around  him;  they  are  stronger  than  he,  and  he  desires  to 
subjugate  their  strength  to  his  service.  Seeing  a  forked  stick  in 
his  path,  a  bright  thought  dawns  upon  his  mind;  he  will  tie  the 
long  end  of  a  stick  to  the  horns  of  a  bull,  w^hile  the  short  end  will 
run  into  the  ground  and  stir  it  much  faster  than  he  could  do  it  with 
sharpened  stick,  and  Avith  much  less  labor  to  himself.  He  tries  his 
the  experiment,  and  crios,  Eureka!  or  some  barbarous  equivalent 
for  that  Greek  word.     The  germ  of  the  plow  is  at  length  invented. 

The  process  by  which  the  first  man  arrived  at  this  result  may 
be  pure  conjecture;  but  that  the  forked  stick  was  the  origin  of 
the  plow,  we  have  the  most  ample  evidence. 


8 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


Fig.  1  is  copied  from  an  ancient  monument  in  Asia  Minor,  made 
wholly  of  the  natural  crooks  of  the  branch  of  a  tree,  the  only  arti- 
ficial contrivances  being  the  brace  e,  which  strengthens  the  share 
c  bj  and  the  pins  in  the  fore  part  of  the  beam  a  b,  and  connect  it  with 
the  central  division  of  the  yoke^r.  It  was  with  a  plow  like  this 
that  the  servants  of  Job  were  "  plowing  in  the  field  when  the 
Sabeans  came  upon  them  and  drove  them  away."  It  was  with 
such  an  one  that  Ulysses  plowed  among  the  sands  of  the  shore  at 
Ithaca,  when  he  feigned  madness  before  the  messengers  of  Aga- 
memnon. 


r 


p 


The  most  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt,  dating  back  at  least 
three  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  reveal  to  us  a 
slight  modification  of  this  implement,  quite  as  rude  in  form,  yet 
somewhat  more  powerful  in  execution. 


Fig.  2  is  a  copy  of  these  figures.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  share 
being  triangular  in  form,  will  take  a  broader  furrow,  while  two 
handles  in  the  place  of  one  give  the  plowman  a  greater  command 
over  the  instrument. 


History  of  tue  Plow. 


The  most  ancient  form  of  the  Roman  plow  iisea  in  the  clays  of 
the  Tarquins,  is  given  in  Fig.  3. 

A  more  recent  form  of 
the  implement,  as  used 
by  Cincinnatiis  and  Cato, 
is  given  in  Figs.  4  and  5, 
which  will  be  found  to 
agree  exactly  with  the 

description  of  the  imple-  Mg.3. 

ment  given  by  Virgil  in  the  Georgics.  The  sole  of  the  plow, 
A  B,  has  two  rectangular  pieces  of  wood,  G  and  H,  fixed  to  it 
on  each  side,  forming  an  acute  angle  with  it,  in  which  the  teeth, 

E  F  {dentalia),  are  inserted.  This 
exactly  answers  the  description  of 
Virgil:  "Duplici  aptantur  dentalia 
dorso;"  (the  teeth  are  fitted  to  the 
double  back.)  E  and  F  project 
obliquely  upward,  and  perform  the 
oflice  of  a  mould-board.  The  share, 
B,  was  of  metal. 

The  next  improvement  in  the  plow 
was  to  cover  the  point  with  iron. 
A  very  ancient  implement  of  British 
husbandry,  called  the  Caschrom,  is 
given  in  Fig.  6,  which  is  used  as  a 
plow  at  this  day  in  some  parts  of  the 
outer  Hebrides  and  in  the  Isle  of 
Sky.  Like  the  preceding  examples 
of  the  implement  from  Asia  Minor 
and  Egypt,  the  wooden  portion  of 
it  is  in  one  single  piece,  and  has 
evidently  been  selected  on  account 
of  the  natural  crook  which  it  had 
'assumed  in  the  tree,  that  permits 
the  part  a  d  to  run  nearly  horizon- 
tally, while  the  upward  curve  of 
F'/g,  4.  jF'i^r.  6.  the  handle,  a  c,  rises  to  the  shoulder 

of  the  plowman,  and  is  allowed  to  rest  upon  it.  When  he 
desires  to  make  it  go  deeper  into  the  ground,  he  raises  c  on 
his  shoulder;  when  it  runs  in  too  deeply,  he  presses  with  his  foot 
upon  the  pin  e.     It  is  armed  with  an  iron  chisel  at  the  point  h, 


10 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


having  a  socket  at  the  upper  end,  d,  into  which  the  fore  end 
of  the  wooden  part  is  firmly  wedged. 


Fig.  6. 

Fig.  7  IS  the  figure  of  an  East  Indian  plow  now  in  the  Museum 
of  our  Society  at  Albany.  Its  form  has  not  been  altered  for  cen- 
luries,  and  in  some  portions  of  India  it  is  the  only  plow  in  use. 

The  Greeks,  who  always  had  a  piece  of  history  for  every  emer- 
gency, tell  us  that  Ceres,  or  Demeter,  as  she  was  called  by  them, 
who  was  the  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Ehea,  and  the  mother  of 
Proserpine  by  Jupiter,  was  the  iuventress  and  guardian  of  agri- 
culture. The  story  goes,  that  one  day  as  Proserpine  Avas  gather- 
ing flowers  in  the  fields  of  Enna  in  Sicily,  Pluto  came  and  carried 
her  away,  to  be  the  queen  of  the  lower  regions.  Ceres  Avas  dis- 
consolate for  the  loss  of  her  daughter,  and  for  a  long  period 
devoted  herself  to  searching  for  her  over  the  whole  earth.  While 
she  thus  devoted  herself  to  this  search,  she  neglected  the  earth, 
which  thus  become  barren.  Jnpiter,  and  all  the  gods  in  succes- 
sion, besought  her  to  abandon  the  search  and  return  to  Olympus, 
but  she  refused,  and  would  not  be  consoled.  At  length  the  gods 
persuaded  Pluto  to  allow  Proserpine  to  revisit  the  upper  world, 
remaining  with  her  mother  two-thirds  of  the  year,  while  she  was 
still  to  return  to  him  for  one-third  of  it.  Ceres  was  appeased  by 
this  arrangement,  and  consented  to  return  to  Olympus;  but  ere 
she  went,  she  taught  to  Triptolemus  of  Eleusis  the  art  of  agricul- 
ture, giving  him  at  tlie  same  time  her  cliariot  drawn  by  two 
dragons,  in  which,  by  her  command,  he  traveled  over  the  whole 
earth,  distributing  corn  to  all  the  inhabitants.  Triptolemus, 
under  her  inspiration,  was  the  inventor  of  the  plow. 

The  Greeks  had  two  festivals  in  honor  of  Ceres,  which  were 
called  Thesmophoria  and  Eleusvnia.  The  Romans,  who  were 
greatlv  devoted  to  agricultur(\  wore  ai'dent  worshi[)pers  of  Ceres, 


History  of  the  Plow. 


U 


12 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


having  many  temples  devoted  to  her  service,  and  one  annual  fes- 
tival called  the  Ceralia.  This  festival  was  celebrated  by  matrons 
holding  burning  torches  in  their  hands,  and  whoever  ventured  to 
appear  without  previous  initiation  was  punished  with  death. 

This  divine  origin  of  agriculture  was  devoutly  believed  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  as  well  as  the  Egyptians;  but  like  all  other 
false  beliefs,  it  worked  great  practical  injury.  It  was  reckoned 
impious  to  change  the  processes  which  had  been  expressly 
revealed  from  heaven,  lest  they  should  appear  to  derogate  from 
the  wisdom  of  Ceres,  and  thus  incur  her  displeasure;  which,  of 
course,  was  an  absolute  barrier  to  all  improvement.  In  fact  it 
would  seem  that  the  shadow  of  that  delusion  has  reached  down 
to  the  present  day,  since,  in  no  art  known  to  man,  is  it  so  difficult 
to  give  currency  to  new  processes  as  it  is  in  agriculture.  A  very 
large  portion  of  the  farmers  still  use  implements  as  rude  as  those 
we  have  already  figured.  In  fact  the  Caschrom  is  still  in  use  in 
some  parts  of  the  Hebrides. 


J^lff.  8. 

In  Fig.  8  we  give  the  plow  used  throughout  Egypt  at  the  present 
day,  which  is  but  a  very  slight  improvement  on  the  ancient  imple- 
ment represented  in  Fig.  2.  Fig.  9  is  an  accurate  representation 
of  a  plow  now  in  our  museum  at  Albany,  such  as  is  almost 
universally  used  in  Mexico.  Even  in  France,  Spain  and  Italy  the 
plows  used  are  of  the  most  awkward  kind,  incapable  of  doing 
good  work,  and  excessively  wasteful  of  power. 

The  next  step  in  improvement  seems  to  have  been  the  substi- 
tution of  a  more  decided  wedge  form  in  the  plow  for  the  trian- 
gular sticks  of  an  earlier  age.  In  some  cases  the  leading  idea  of 
the  plowmaker  seems  to  have  been  to  have  the  wedge  act  hori- 
zontally, lifting  up  the  earth;  in  others  the  edge  was  formed  to 
act  laterally,  pushing  the  slice  cut  off"  by  the  point  over  to  the 
other  side,  so  as  to  leave  a  free  space  for  the  next  furrow. 


History  of  the  Plow. 


13 


Fisi'.  10,  Chinese  plow  in  the  miiseiim  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society. 

Fio-.  11  represents  a  plow  figured  from  the  Harleian  manuscript 
No.  4,374,  such  as  Avas  used  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Edward 


I^iff.  9. 
the  Fourth,  A.  D.  1470.     It  is  formed  from  a  rhomboidal  piece 
of  wood,  bent  or  grooved  downward  from  the   middle  towards 
the  front  and  rear,  with  the  edges  turned  upward,  the  acute  ends 
being  turned  towards  the  front  and  rear,  the  front  being  shod 


F'ig.  20. 
with  iron.     In  this  way  the  earth  is  scooped  up  from  the  solid 
earth,  pushed  backward  and  upward  to  the  middle  line  of  the 
share,  when  it  falls  backward  in  a  pulverized  state  into  the  furrow 
from  whence  it  was  taken. 


14 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


Fig.  12  is  taken  from  an  old  Saxon  calendar,  preserved  in  the 
Cotton  manuscripts  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  used  in  the  time 
of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  was  drawn  by  four  oxen,  and  fast- 
ened to  them  by  ropes  made  of  twisted  willows,  and  sometimes 


by  the  skins  of  whales.  It  consists  of  a  simple  wooden  wedge 
covered  with  straps  of  iron,  one  side  being  placed  parallel  to 
the  line  of  the  plow's  direction,  the  other  sweeping  over  to 
the  left  hand,  clearing  it  from  its  own  path,  and  leaving  an  unob- 
structed furrow  for  the  next  slice.  A  coulter,  not  unlike  those 
now  in  use,  is  inserted  in  the  beam,  and  a  wheel  is  placed  in  front 
to  regulate  tlie  depth. 

We  have  met  with  nothing  previous  to  this  plate  which  shows 
a  real  coulter,  or  that  which  we  now  call  by  that  name.  Virgil's 
plow  had  none,  nor  were  any  of  the  Italian  plows  provided  with 
one  in  TuU's  day. 

ft  will  be  seen  from  the  two  last  illustrations  that  the  idea  of 
a  wedge  form  for  a  plow  had  begun  to  dawn  upon  men's  minds; 
some  using  the  wedge  acting  vertically,  others  laterally;  but  they 


existed  in  the  nn'nds  of  plowmakers  in  too  vague  and  misty  a  form 
to  be  of  much  pi-actical  benefit.  No  one  had  as  yet  grasped  the 
idea  of  conil)ining  the  two  wedges  in  the  same  implement,  nor 
had  they  any  i(l(>a  of  the  curves  by  which  tliis  could  l)e  effected. 


History  of  the  Flow. 

Ii  l|i.|',),;|U,>!iVl|n:;i||ii|llJi|ll!!M!l 


15 


16  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

There  is  a  plow  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Society  at  Albany, 
from  Canada,  derived  from  France,  which  has  been  in  use  there 
unchanged  for  centuries,  although  no  one  knows  how  many,  which 
seems  to  be  the  first  feeble  attempt  to  realize  this  idea.  We  give 
a  drawing  of  it  in  Fig.  13. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  the  twisted  wedge  raising  up  the 
earth  first  and  then  twisting  it  to  the  right.  It  is  furnished  with 
two  wheels  to  keep  it  steady  in  the  furrow,  and  a  coulter  of  the 
modern  form.  It  is  a  rude  affair  when  compared  with  our  modern 
implements,  but  it  shows  real  genius  in  its  author. 

The  beginning  of  the  last  century  was  signalized  by  a  revival 
of  interest  in  agriculture  in  England,  and  attention  was  more 
strongly  turned  to  the  improvement  of  the  plow  than  ever  before. 
A  plow  introduced  from  Holland,  and  known  as  the  Rotherham 
plow  (many  persons  suppose  this  name  to  be  a  corruption  of  Rot- 
terdam), was  first  constructed  hy  Joseph  Foljambe  of  Yorkshire, 
which  he  soon  after  sold  to  Mr.  Staniforth,  who  did  not  manufac- 
ture them  himself,  but  charged  a  royalty  of  two  shillings  and  six- 
pence on  the  manufacture  by  others;  but  when  he  attempted  to 
raise  the  price  to  seven  shillings  and  sixpence,  the  validity  of  his 
patent  was  contested  and  set  aside  by  the  courts  on  the  ground 
that  it  was  not  a  new  invention. 

This  plow  became  very  popular  among  the  more  enterprising 
farmers;  but  notwithstanding  its  work  was  much  better,  and  its 
draft  was  much  lighter,  it  came  very  slowly  into  use  among  the 
masses. 

Fig.  14,  land  side  of  Eotherham  plow.  Fig.  15,  furrow  side  of 
Rotherham  plow. 

DIMENSIONS  OF  THE  ROTHERHAM  PLOW-Fio.  15. 

Feet.        In. 

From  the  end  of  stilt,  E,  to  the  point  of  the  share,  1 7  4* 

From  the  end  of  beam,  A,  to  point  of  share,  1 3  0* 

Length  of  the  beam,  A,  B , .  6  0 

Width  of  the  head  in  the  widest  part,  T ]  4 

Width  of  the  head  at  J •. . . .  0  9 

Width  of  share  at  D 0  85 

Length  of  surface  on  which  the  plow  touches  the  ground,  J,  1 2  10s 

Height  from  ground  where  the  coulter  goes  through 1  8 

Width  between  stilts  at  extreme  end 2  6 

Height  of  stilts  from  ground 2  10 

Weight  of  wood  and  iron  work 14  cwt. 

*  These  measures  are  taken  by  dropping  a  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  sole,  and 
then  measuring  horizontally. 


History  of  the  Plow. 


17 


This  plow  was  niade  of  wood,  covered  in  the  working  parts 
with  sheet  iron,  which  needed  frequent  renewal.  It  is  the  first, 
so  far  as  we  know,  which  provided  a  bridle,  e,  Fig.  16,  by  which 
the  plow  could  be  turned  to  or  from  land.     The  point  is  conical, 


which  enters  the  land  on  the  principle  of  burrowing  or  mining, 
rather  than  by  the  clean  chisel  cut  now  adopted,  which  must  have 
considerably  increased  the  power  required  to  operate  it;  still,  a 
comparison  of  it  with  its  predecessors  shows  that  it  must  have 


done  much  better  woik,  and  with  less  expenditure  of  power.  It 
will  also  1)e  seen,  on  examination  of  the  mould  board,  that  the 
maker  had  empirically  approximated  to  the  true  theory,  as  the 
two  wedges,  lateral  and  vertical,  are  connected  by  a  curve  line, 
so  that  the  furrow  slice  is  first  raised  a  little  and  is  then  gradu- 
ally turned  over  to  one  side. 

Ten  years  after  the  letters  patent 
were  granted  to  Foljambe  for  thr 
Rotherham  plow,  Jethro  TuU  pul)- 
lished  a  work  on  "  Horse-hoeing 
Husbandry,"  the  first  edition  of 
which  was  published  in  1730.  In  this  work,  although  TuU  was 
a  thorough  radical  in  the  cause  of  agricultural  improvement,  he 
gives  the  preference  to  the  old  Berkshire  plow,  which  will  be 
seen,  on  comparison  with  the  Rotherham  plow,  to  be  far  inferior 
2 


F'iff.  f6. 


18  Refoet  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

to  it  in  ease  of  management,  in  ability  to  do  good  work,  and  in 
lightness  of  draft. 

We  give  this  plow  and  its  subordinate  parts  on  Plate  I,  as  illus- 
trating the  history  of  ploAvs,  and  as  a  curious  example  of  the 
slowness  with  which  real  improvements  were  adopted  in  agricul- 
tui-al  communities.  We  may  add,  that  Tull  published  another 
edition  of  his  work  in  1762,  thirty-two  years  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Rotherham  plow,  in  which  he  still  adheres  to  his  pre- 
ference for  the  old  Berkshire. 

Tull  was  strongly  in  favor  of  four  coultered  plows,  such  as  is 
shown  in  Plate  I,  fig.  2.  His  eighteenth  chapter  is  devoted  to  a 
dialogue  between  a  farmer  and  himself,  in  which  he  gives  his 
reasons  for  his  preference  of  that  form  of  plow.  His  chief  reasons 
are  briefly  these:  It  divides  the  land  more  completely,  aflbrding 
greater  access  to  air  and  moisture.  The  furrow  being  cut  into 
four  parts,  it  will  have  four  times  the  superfices  that  it  would  have 
without  the  coulter  cuts;  but  this  is  not  all.  "It  is  more  divided 
crossways,  viz  :  The  ground  wrest  presses  and  breaks  the  lower 
(or  right  hand)  quarter;  the  other  three  quarters,  in  rising  and 
coming  over  the  earth  board,  must  make  a  crooked  line  about  a 
fourth  longer  than  the  straight  one  they  made  before  moved; 
therefore,  their  thinness  not  being  able  to  hold  them  together, 
they  are  broken  into  many  more  pieces  for  want  of  tenacity  to 
extend  to  a  longer  line,  contrary  to  a  whole  furrow,  whose  great 
breadth  enables  it  to  stretch  and  extend  from  a  shorter  to  a  longer 
line  without  breaking;  and,  as  it  is  turned  oft',  the  parts  are  drawn 
together  again  by  the  spring  of  the  turf,  and  so  remain  whole 
after  plowing." 

The  objects  which  Mr.  Tull  sought  to  accomplish  were  very 
desirable,  but  the  four  coultered  plow  was  never  very  generally 
adopted;  and  as  the  same  objects  have  been  since  accomplished 
in  a  far  more  simple  and  philosophical  manner,  it  has  fallen  into 
utter  oblivion. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  old  Berkshire  plow,  pure  and  simple. 
The  plow  head  consists  of  a  pair  of  wheels,  A  B,  and  their  axis. 
Two  crow  staves,  D  D,  through  which  two  rows  of  holes  are  per- 
forated, by  means  of  which  the  pillow,  E,  upon  which  the  beam 
rests,  is  elevated  or  depressed.  H,  the  tow  chain  which  fastens 
the  plow  to  the  head.  L,  the  bridle  ch.iin,  one  end  whereof  is 
fastened  to  the  beam  by  a  pin,  and  the  other  end  to  the  top  of 
the  stake,  which  is  held  up  to  the  left  crow  staft'  by  the  ring  M. 


History  of  the  Plow.  19 

The  plosv  tail  consists  of  the  beam,  N,  the  coulter,  O,  the  share, 
P,  and  the  sheat.  Q;  the  hinder  sheat,  R,  passing  through  the 
Ix'um  near  its  end.  T,  the  drock  which  belongs  to  the  right  side 
of  tile  plow  tail,  and  whereto  the  ground  wrest,  V,  is  fastened,  as 
is  the  earth  board,  whose  fore  part,  W,  is  seen  before  the  sheat. 
Z  is  the  double  retch  which  holds  up  the  sheat. 

We  have  retained  the  antiquated  nomenclature  of  Tull  in  this 
description,  as  these  words  are  still  retained  in  some  English 
works,  and  would  not  be  understood  by  American  readers  without 
a  plate  with  references  were  before  them. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  four  coultered  plow  recommended  by 
VuU.  The  beam  differs  in  length  from  the  former  one,  being  ten 
feet  four  inches  long,  or  two  feet  four  inches  longer  than  the 
other.  It  differs  also  in  shape,  being  only  straight  from  a  to  b, 
from  thence  curving  suddenly  upward,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  perpendicular  height  at  a  is  eleven  inches,  at  b  one  foot  eight 
inches,  while  the  height  of  the  beam  where  it  rests  upon  the 
pillow  is  two  feet  ten  inches  above  the  plane  of  the  sole. 

From  the  end  a  to  the  back  part  of  the  fii'st  coulter  is  three 
feet  two  inches;  from  thence  to  the  back  of  the  next  coulter  is 
thirteen  inches;  from  thence  to  the  fourth  is  the  same.  From  a 
to  b  is  seven  feet. 

The  beam  is  made  of  ash  or  oak,  and  is  five  inches  deep  and 
four  inches  broad  at  the  first  coulter. 

Fig.  4  is  the  sJieat^  seven  inches  broad,  with  the  iron  retch  upon 
it,  the  left  leg  of  which  must  stand  foremost.  The  ends  pass 
through  the  beam,  and  are  secured  on  the  top  by  nuts;  the  sheat 
is  also  mortised  into  the  beam  and  secured  by  a  pin  passing 
through  the  hole  a.  The  angle  bed  must  always  be  less  than 
45  deg. ;  from  42  deg.  to  43  deg.  works  best  in  practice. 

Fig.  5  is  the  share,  a,  the  end  of  the  point;  b  is  the  tail  of  the 
share;  length,  from  a  to  b  is  three  feet  nine  inches;  c  is  the  Jin; 
d  the  socket  into  which  the  l)ottom  of  the  sheat  enters;  e  a  thin 
plate  of  iron  to  which  the  hinder  sheat  is  riveted.  From  a  to  f 
is  the  point,  three  and  a  half  inches  long,  flat  beneath  and  round 
above.  From  f  to  c  is  the  edge  of  the  fin,  which  should  be  of 
steel. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  share  with  its  right  side  upward  as  when 
plowing;  the  side  a  b  should  l)e  perfectly  straight,  but  its  under 
side,  c,  should  be  a  little  hollow. 


20  Effort  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Fig.  7  is  the  share  turned  bottom  upward,  showing  concavity  o 
of  the  fin,  which  must  be  greatest  in  a  stony,  rubbly  soil. 

Fig.  8  shows  the  share  right  side  upward,  but  leaning  towards 
the  left. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  upper  and  right  side  of  a  four  coultered  plow, 
of  which  V,  the  iron  ground  wrest,  is  shown  in  Fig.  9;  it  is  two 
feet  five  inches  long,  four  inches  deep  at  the  end  b,  and  three- 
eighths  inch  thick,  except  at  the  end  a,  where  it  is  thin  enough 
to  bend  so  as  to  set  close  to  the  share,  as  at  e,  fig.  6.  The  ground 
wrest  has  four  small  holes  near  its  end,  a,  into  one  of  which  a  nail 
is  inserted,  which  fastens  it  to  the  sheat  through  the  long  hole  in 
the  side  of  the  socket  of  the  share,  as  at  a,  fig.  10,  when  it  will 
stand  in  the  position  ef  in  fig.  6.  From  the  outside  of  the  ground 
wrest  at  y,  to  the  outside  of  the  share  at  6,  is  eleven  and  a  half 
inches.  The  ground  wrest  has  several  holes  at  the  upper  side  of 
its  broadest  end,  as  at  5,  in  fig.  9,  by  which  it  is  nailed  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  drock  T,  as  in  fig.  3,  which  drock,  with  its  per- 
forations, is  shown  in  fig.  11 

Fig.  12  is  the  earth  board  (mould  board),  with  its  inside  up- 
wards; the  notch  a  b  shows  the  rising  of  the  wood  which  take^ 
hold  of  the  sheat,  to  Avhich  it  is  fastened  by  the  holes  c  and  d, 
and  at  the  other  end  it  is  fastened  to  the  drock  by  the  hole  e;  all 
which  is  seen  at  W,  in  fig.  3.  The  pin  with  which  it  is  fastened 
to  the  drock  is  larger  in  the  middle  than  at  either  end,  which 
prevents  the  earth  board  from  coming  near  the  drock;  by  this  pin 
the  distance  between  them  is  regulated,  so  that  the  rear  end  of 
the  earth  board  may  be  thrown  inward  or  outw^ard,  according  to 
the  requirements  of  the  soil. 

Fig.  13  is  the  long  handle,  five  feet  four  inches  long,  and  four 
inches  in  the  widest  part;  it  is  pinned  to  the  sheat  through  the 
holes  a  6,  and  to  the  drock  through  the  hole  c. 

The  short  handle,  S,  is  fig.  14;  is  three  feet  nine  inches  long, 
and  is  pinned  to  the  hinder  sheat,  fig.  15,  by  the  hole  a,  and  to 
the  top  of  the  fore  sheat  above  the  beam  by  the  hole  b. 

Fig.  16  is  the  piece  for  the  mortises  in  which  the  coulters  are 
inserted;  the  lateral  distance  between  them  is  two  and  a  half 
inches.  The  fore  part  of  every  mortise  should  incline  a  little  to 
the  left,  so  that  the  backs  of  the  coulters  may  not  bear  against 
the  lett  side  of  the  incisions  made  by  their  edges.  In  setting  the 
coulters,  each  should  stand  nearer  to  the  perpendicular  than  the 


History  of  the  Plow.  21 

one  behind;  or,  in  other  words,  the  forward  coulter  should  have 
the  least  rake,  and  the  rear  coulter  the  most. 

Fig.  17  is  a  coulter,  a  b;  its  length  is  two  feet  eight  inches,  e 
d;  its  edge  is  sixteen  inches  long,  d  c;  the  length  of  its  handle  is 
sixteen  inches,  one  and  seven-eighths  inches  broad,  and  seven- 
eighths  inch  thick. 

Fig.  18  is  a  nut  with  its  two  opposite  corners  turned  up  so  as 
to  be  driven  by  a  hammer. 

Fig.  19  is  an  iron  collar  (bridle)  by  which  the  tow  chain  is 
fastened  to  the  beam,  as  seen  at  a,  fig.  3.  The  notches  are  in- 
tended to  facilitate  the  direction  of  the  share  to  or  from  land. 
The  length  ot  each  side  of  this  collar  is  one  foot. 

The  tow  chain  is  shown  in  fig,  3,  where  the  link  Y  is  secured 
by  the  stake,  as  shown  in  fig.  1. 

Fig.  20  is  the  iron  wilds.  The  distance  between  the  two  legs 
is  eight  and  a  half  inches;  their  length  is  nineteen  inches.  Its 
position  is  seen  in  figs.  1  and  2;  the  notches  are  intended  to  give 
a  broader  or  narrower  furrow.  E  is  the  ring  by  which  the  two 
links  and  the  two  crooks,  F  and  G,  are  held  together,  and  on 
which  they  all  move. 

The  diameter  of  the  left  wheel  in  fig.  2  is  twenty  inches;  of  the 
right,  two  feet  three  inches;  their  distance  asunder  is  two  feet 
five  and  a  half  inches. 

The  crow  staves  are  one  foot  eleven  inches  high  from  the  box 
to  the  gallows,  and  their  distance  apart  is  ten  inches.  The  height 
from  the  plane  of  the  sole  to  the  hole  in  the  box  where  the  tow 
chain  passes  through  it,  is  thirteen  inches,  which  is  two  inches 
below  the  holes  of  the  wilds  on  the  rear  face  of  the  box.  The 
height  at  the  other  end,  where  the  crook  of  the  collar  takes  hold 
of  the  pin  of  the  beam  at  c,  fig.  2,  is  twenty  inches  high. 

No  other  noticeable  changes  were  made  in  the  plow  until 
near  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  when  the  conviction 
that  there  was  a  real  law  of  nature  which  ought  to  regulate  the 
shape  of  the  plow,  began  in  a  vague  and  misty  way  to  take  pos- 
session of  men's  minds.  They  felt  instinctively  that  the  imple- 
ment was  too  complicated  and  cumbrous,  and  that  it  was  quite 
possible  to  simplify  it  and  to  diminish  its  draft. 

One  of  the  earliest  laborers  in  this  field  was  Thomas  Jefferson, 
late  President  of  the  United  States,  who,  in  a  communication  to 
the  French  Institute,  attempted  to  solve  the  mathematical  problem 


22 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


of  the  true  surface  of  the  moulcl-boarcl,  and  to  lay  down  intelli- 
gible and  practical  rules  for  its  formation,  for  the  first  time. 

He  saw  very  clearly,  and  we  believe  he  was  the  first  to  discern 
it  with  distinctness,  that  the  plow  should  consist  of  two  wedges, 
one  acting  vertically  and  the  other  laterally,  which  should  be  so 
blended  in  a  curve  surface  that  the  furrow  should  rise  and  turn 
over  smoothly  and  continuously. 

It  is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  value  of  this  contribution 
to  agricultural  science.  All  the  old  writers  complain  that  Avhen 
the  makers  of  good  plows  died,  their  art  died  with  them.  Their 
plans  being  purely  empirical,  they  could  not  communicate  the  true 
mode  of  making  them  to  others,  and  hence  the  art  was  lost  as  fast  as 
it  was  found.  Indeed,  the  same  maker  was  often  unable  to  realize 
his  own  ideals  in  practice,  making  at  one  time  a  plow  that  gave 
perfect  satisfaction,  and  the  next  time  one  that  was  very  inferior. 
Thus,  Arthur  Young  tells  us  in  his  agricultural  report  of  Suffolk, 
that  "a  very  ingenious  blacksmith  of  the  name  of  Brand"  made 
a  plow  of  iron,  of  which  he  says  "  there  is  no  other  in  the  king- 
dom equal  to  it;"  and  yet  when  he  died  no  one  else  could  make 
them.     A  drawing  of  this  plow  is  given  in  Fig.  17. 


JP'iff.  f7. 

It  was  usual  for  the  farmer  to  purchase  the  wooden  part  of  his 
plow  of  a  mechanic  called  the  plow-wright,  which  he  afterwards 
had  ironed  l)y  a  ))lacksmith.  Neither  of  these  men  paid  any 
regard  to  the  views  of  the  other;  the  plow-wright  made  his  part 
according  to  the  counsel  of  his  own  will,  while  the  blacksmith 
adhered  to  his  own  notions  without  the  slightest  reference  to  the 
plans  of  the  plow-wiiulit.     The   result  was  an  implement,   as  a 


History  of  the  Plow.  ^3 

whole,  which  had  no  unity  of  phm,  and  the  discordant  parts  could 
not,  therefore,  be  expected  to  accomplish  satisfactory  results. 

In  view  of  these  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making  uni- 
formly good  plows,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  discovery  of  Mr. 
Jetferson,  by  Avhich  mould-boards  could  be  made  by  any  one  with 
Ihe  absolute  certainty  of  having  them  all  exactly  alike,  was  an 
era  in  agriculture,  and  the  root  of  all  real  progress  in  the  manu- 
facture of  this  all-important  implement. 

W(;  have  therefore  thought  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  give 
a  full  description  of  his  method,  which  we  hope  will  prove  intel- 
ligible to  every  one  who  desires  to  understand  it. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  curve  of  the  mould-board 
which  Mr.  Jeft'erson  considered  to  be  the  best,  we  give  his  ideas 
in  his  own  words,  except  that  we  shall  take  the  liberty  of  chang- 
ing the  antiquated  names  given  by  him,  for  those  which  are  used 
to  designate  those  parts  at  the  present  day: 

"  The  mould-board  of  the  ])low  ought  not  only  to  be  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  shield  of  the  share  beginning  at  its  posterior 
edge,  but  it  must  also  be  in  the  same  plane.  Its  first  function  is 
to  receive  horizontally  from  the  sock  the  earth,  to  raise  it  to  the 
height  proper  for  being  turned  over;  to  present,  in  its  passage,  the 
least  possible  resistance,  and  consequently  to  require  the  minimum  of 
moving  power.  Were  its  function  confined  to  this,  the  wedge  would 
present,  no  doubt,  the  properest  form  for  practice;  but  the  object 
is  also  to  turn  over  the  sod  of  earth.  One  of  the  edges  of  the 
mould-board  ought  then  to  have  no  elevation,  to  avoid  an  useless 
wasting  of  force;  the  other  edge  ought,  on  the  contrary,  to  go  on 
ascending  until  it  has  passed  the  perpendicular,  in  order  that  the 
sod  may  be  inverted  by  its  own  weight;  and  the  inclination  of 
the  mould-board  must  increase  gradually  from  the  moment  that 
it  has  received  the  sod. 

"  In  this  second  function  the  mould-board  then  acts  like  a  wedge 
situated  in  an  oblique  direction,  or  ascending,  the  point  of  which 
recedes  horizontally  on  the  earth,  while  the  other  end  continues 
to  rise  till  it  passes  the  perpendicular.  Or,  to  consider  it  under 
another  point  of  view,  let  us  place  on  the  ground  a  wedge,  the 
breadth  of  which  is  equal  to  that  of  the  share  of  the  plow,  and 
which  in  length  is  equal  to  the  share  from  the  wing  to  the  poste- 
rior extremity,  and  the  height  of  the  heel  is  equal  to  the  height 
of  the  rear  of  the  share  above  the  sole:  draw  a  diagonal  on  the 
upper  surface  from  the  left  angle  of  the  point  to  the  angle  on  the 


24 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


right  of  the  upper  part  of  the  heel;  slope  the  face  by  making  it 
bevel  from  the  diagonal  to  the  right  edge  which  touches  the 
earth:  this  half  will  evidently  be  the  properest  form  for  discharg- 
ing the  required  functions,  namely,  to  remove  and  turn  over  grad- 
ually the  sod,  and  with  the  least  force  possible.  If  the  left  of 
the  diagonal  be  sloped  in  the  same  manner,  that  is  to  say,  if  we 
suppose  a  straight  line,  the  length  of  which  is  equal  at  least  to 
that  of  the  wedge,  applied  on  the  face  already  sloped,  and  moving 
backwards  parallel  to  itself  and  to  the  two  ends  of  the  wedge, 
at  the  same  time  that  its  lower  end  keeps  itself  always  along  the 
lower  end  of  the  right  face,  the  result  will  be  a  curved  surface, 
the  essential  character  of  which  is,  that  it  will  be  a  combination 
of  the  principle  of  the  wedge,  considered  according  to  two  direc- 
tions, which  cross  each  other,  and  will  give  what  we  require,  a 
mould-board  presenting  the  least  possible  resistance.  This  mould- 
board,  besides,  is  attended  with  the  valuable  advantage  that  it 
can  be  made  by  any  common  workman  by  a  process  so  exact  that 
its  form  will  not  vary  the  thickness  of  an  hair.  One  of  the  great 
faults  of  this  essential  part  of  the  plow  is  the  want  of  precision, 
because  workmen  having  no  other  guide  than  the  eye,  scarcely 
two  of  them  are  similar.  One  may  easily  conceive  and  render 
sensible  the  manner  in  which  the  sod  is  raised  on  the  mould- 
board  which  we  have  described,  by  an  attentive  consideration  of 
the  following  diagram,  Fig.  18. 


-yd 


Fiff.  f8. 

Draw  on  an  horizontal  plane  or  parallelogram,  ahcfe  the 
lines  a  b  and  c  e,  being  each  =  to  twenty-four  inches,  =  the  length 
of  the  mould-board,  and  the  lines  b  c^  d  e,  each  =  nine  inches,  = 
the  width  of  the  sole  at  the  heel  of  the  plow,  produce  the  line  a  e 
to  d,  and  make  e  d  foui-  and  u  half  inches,  this  being  the  overhang 


History  of  the  Plow.  25 

of  the  rear  end  of  the  moukl-boarcl  beyond  tlie  perpendicidar 
which  Mr.  Jelt'crson  thought  the  most  convenient  length  in  prac- 
tice. 

At  the  point  d  erect  a  straight  stick  twelve  inches  long,  which 
is  twice  the  depth  of  the  proposed  furrow;  then  from  the  point 
b  stretch  a  string  tightly  to  the  top  of  the  stick  at  d.  When  this 
is  done,  take  a  straight  edge  twelve  inches  long,  and  placing  it  on  h  c, 
where  it  will  rest  horizontally  and  will  coincide  with  the  plane 
of  the  parallelogram,  move  it  backwards  towards  the  line  a  d, 
keeping  the  point  of  the  edge  which  was  at  first  coincident  with 
the  point  c  along  the  line  c  e,  and  always  preserving  the  paral- 
lelism of  the  edge  with  the  vertical  plane  of  b  c,  it  is  evident  that 
as  the  edge  resting  on  the  diagonal  b  d  moves  backwards,  the  end 
which  at  first  coincided  with  b  will  rise  upward,  and  every  suc- 
cessive removal  towards  the  line  a  d  it  will  assume  a  larger  angle 
with  the  horizontal  plane.  When  the  end  which  was  at  c  arrives 
at  the  point  gr,  and  the  corresponding  part  of  the  edge  is  on  the 
string  at  h,  the  line  gr  li  will  form  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees 
with  the  horizontal  plane.  When  the  end  of  the  stick  stands  on 
the  point  f^  and  the  edge  coincides  with/*  on  the  string,  the  stick 
will  be  exactly  perpendicular  to  the  plane:  passing  on  in  the  line 
/  e,  towards  a  cZ,  the  angles  will  assume  an  opposite  direction,  so 
that  when  the  end  of  the  moving  stick  rests  upon  e,  and  the  edge 
rests  on  the  string  at  tZ,  it  will  make  an  angle  with  the  plane  of 
110^  degrees.  When  the  path  of  the  straight  edge  from  b  c  to 
e  d  is  attentively  considered,  it  is  evident  that  it  will  have  des- 
cribed a  curved  surface,  which  is  the  ideal  of  what  we  seek  to 
reproduce  in  wood. 

Let  us  assume  that  the  depth  of  the  furrow  is  six  inches,  its 
width  nine  inches,  and  the  length  of  the  mould-board  two  feet, 
these  fio;ures  will  decide  the  size  of  the  block  from  which  the 
mould-board  must  be  cut. 

The  transverse  section  of  the  block.  Fig. 

— —, ^  19,  will  then  be  nine  inches  at  the  base  b  c, 

thirteen  and  a  half  inches  at  its  summit  a  d, 
and  twelve  inches  at  the  side  a  b.  The  line 
b  c  must  be  nine  inches,  because  hat  is  the 
width  of  the  furrow.  The  line  a  b  is  placed 
at  twelve  inches,  because  Mr.  Jefferson  found 
that  unless  the  height  of  the  mould-board 
jF///.  /O.  was  tAvice  as  gieat  as  the  furrow  (which  we 


26 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


Ta 


Tl 


have  assumed  to  be  six  inches),  the  earth,  when  the  soil  was 
friable  and  sandy,  would  rise  up  over  the  edge  of  the  mould- 
board  like  waves,  and  fill  the  furrow  behind  the  plow.  It  will 
be  seen,  however,  since  in  the  progress  of  discovery  we  have 
obtained  a  much  better  form  of  mould-board,  there  is  no  necessity 
for  this  great  excess  of  height.  The  line  a  d  \s  taken  at  thirteen 
and  a  half  inches,  because  in  his  opinion  it  was  essential  for  the 
rear  end  of  the  mould-board  to  project  four  and  a  half  inches 

beyond  the  perpendicular,  in  order  to 
make  the  sod  fall  on  to  the  preceding 
slice  by  its  own  gravity.  It  is  possible 
that  this  amount  of  inclination  from  the 
perpendicular  would  be  sufficient  to 
efiect  the  object  on  level  land,  but  it 
requires  a  much  greater  lateral  projec 
tion  to  make  the  sod  fall  properly 
when  the  furrow  is  turned  up  hill.  Mr. 
Jefferson's  line  of  inclination  is  twenty 
and  one-half  degrees;  modern  practice, 
founded  on  the  necessity  of  the  case, 
^  gives  an  inclination  not  less  than  fort}'- 


J^/ff.  20. 


five  degrees. 

A  block  having  a  transverse  section, 
as  in  Fig.  19,  and  three  feet  long,  is 
taken  and  smoothly  planed  on  all  its 
sides.  This  block  is  represented  in 
Fig.  20.  The  first  operation  consists 
in  forming  the  tail,  by  which  the  mould- 
board  is  affixed  to  the  stilt  or  handle, 
by  sawing  across  from  a  to  5,  on  ifs 
left  side,  and  at  the  distance  of  twelve 
inches  from  the  end,  f  g ;  continue  the  cut  perpendicularly  along 
a  e,  until  the  edge  of  the  saw  comes  to  a  line  one  and  a  half 
inches  above  the  side  n  i;  then  taking  h  i,  j  h,  each  equal  to  one 
and  a  half  inches,  and  saw  across  the  line  j  k,  along  the  line  k  e, 
parallel  to  the  right  side.  The  piece  b  a  e  I-  j  f  g  will  fall  of 
itself  and  leave  the  tail,  k  e  d  i  h  j,  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thick- 
ness. It  is  of  the  anterior  part,  b  a  e  d  I  m  n,  that  the  mould- 
board  must  be  formed. 

By  means  of  a  square,  trace  out  on  all  the  faces  of  the  block, 
lines  at  an   inch    distance  from   each  other,  of  which  there  will 


History  of  the  Plow. 


27 


necessarily  be  twenty-tlirec;  then  draw  the  diagonals,  m  d,  Fig.  21, 
on  the  upper  face,  and  d  o  on  that  which  is  situ- 
ated on  the  right;  make  the  saw  enter  at  the 
0  point  m,  directing  it  towards  d,  and  making  it 
descend  along  the  line  m  Z,  until  it  marks  out 
a  straight  line  between  d  and  I,  Fig.  22.  Then 
make  the  saw  enter  at  the  point  o,  and  preserving 
the  direction  o  d,  make  it  descend  along  the  line 
o  I,  until  it  meets  with  the  central  diagonal,  d  I, 
which  had  been  formed  by  the  first  cut;  the  pyra- 
mid, m  n  0  I  d,  Fig.  23,  will  drop  out  by  itself 
and  leave  the  block  in  the  form  represented  by 


Fig.  22. 


I^fff.  2f. 


It  is  here  to  be  observed,  that  in  the  last  ope- 
ration, inst-ead  of  stopping  the  saw  at  the  central 


diagonal,  d  I,  if  we  had  continued  to  notch  the 
!)l(>ck,  keeping  on  the  same  plane,  the  wedge 
/  m  n  o  d  a,  Fig.  21,  would  have  been  taken 
away,  and  there  would  have  remained  another 
wedge,  I  o  d  a  b  c,  which,  as  was  observed  be- 
fore, in  speaking  of  the  principle  in  regard  to 
the  construction  of  the  mould-board,  would  exhi- 
bit the  most  perfect  form,  were  the  only  object 
to  raise  the  sod;  but  as  it  must  also  be  turned  **- 
over,  the  left  half  of  the  upper  wedge  has  been 
preserved,  in  order  to  continue  on  the  same  side 
the  bevel  to  be  formed  on  the  right  half  of  the 
lower  wedge. 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  lay  down  the  means  of 

producing  this  bevel;  in  order  to  oljtain  which  we 
had  the  precaution  to  trace  out  lines  around  the 
ij  block  before  we  removed  the  pyramid,  Fig.  23. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  these  lines, 
now  that  they  are  separated  by  the  vacuity  left 
by  the   removal  of  that  pyramid,  Fig.  22. 

Bearing  in  mind  that  the  line  a  d  is  thirteen 
and  a  half  inches  in  length,  the  line  a  h  is  twelve 
inches,  the  line  6  c  or  /  o  is  nine  inches  in  length 
and  that  the  line  d  c  slopes  downward  and  inward 
towards  the  left  hand,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19.  We  make  the  saw 
enter  in  the  two  points  of  tlio  first  dotted  line  situated  nearest  to 


J^/^ 


m 


28  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

m  and  o,  Fig.  22,  and  on  the  diagonals  m  d  and  o  d,  continning 
the  stroke  on  that  first  line  till  it  reach  on  the  one  hand  the  cen- 
tral diagonal  d  I,  and  on  the  other  the  lower  right  edge,  o  /t,  of 
the  block.  Fig.  22;  the  posterior  end  of  the  saw  will  come  out  at 
some  point  situated  on  the  upper  trace  in  a  straight  line  with  the 
corresponding  points  of  the  edge  and  the  central  diagonal.  Con- 
tinue to  do  the  same  thing  on  all  the  points  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  the  exterior  dias^onals  and  lines  traced  out  around  the 
block,  taking  always  the  central  diagonal  and  the  edge  o  h,  as  the 
term  and  the  traces  as  directors;  the  result  will  be,  that  when 
you  have  formed  several  cuts  with  the  saw,  the  end  of  that  instru- 
ment, which  came  out  before  at  the  upper  face  of  the  block,  will 
come  out  at  the  face  situated  on  the  left  of  the  latter;  and  all 
these  different  cuts  of  the  saw  will  have  marked  out  as  many 
straight  lines,  which,  extending  from  the  lower  edge,  o  h,  of  the 
block,  will  proceed  to  cut  the  central  diagonal.  Now,  by  the 
help  of  any  proper  tool,  remove  the  sawn  parts,  taking  care  to 
leave  visible  the  traces  of  the  saw,  and  this  face  of  the  mould- 
board  will  be  finished. 

An  attentive  consideration  of  the  processes  which  have  been 
gone  through  with  the  block,  Fig.  22,  will  show  that  they  are 
precisely  equivalent  to  those  described  in  elucidating  Fig.  18;  the 
diagonal,  d  I,  in  the  first,  corresponds  with  the  diagonal  b  d  in 
the  second,  and  the  line  o  h  in  the  one  corresponds  with  the  line 
c  e  in  the  other. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  point  d  overhangs  the  point 
c  four  and  a  half  inches  towards  the  right;  hence  there  will  be  a 
point  in  the  line  o  h,  at  /,  which  will  be  exactly  vertical  on  the 
diagonal  d  I,  it  is  obvious  that  in  sawing  the  traces  bewteen/  and 
0,  the  point  of  the  saw  will  be  directed  upward  and  forward 
towards  the  line  am.  At  / it  will  be  directed  vertically  upward, 
and  after  it  passes  the  point  /,  towards  c,  it  will  be  directed 
lownwards  and  backwards  towards  the  line  b  I;  the  saw  marks 
'A'hich  are  left  on  the  face  of  the  mould-board  are  the  representa- 
tives of  the  successive  positions  of  the  twelve-inch  stick  as  it  was 
progressively  moved  backward  in  a  line  parallel  to  itself  from  c 
towards  e,  in  Fig.  18. 

It  now  remains  to  construct  the  opposite  side  of  the  mould- 
board  so  as  to  be  parallel  at  all  points  with  the  face.  Invert  the 
block,  and  make  the  saw  enter  at  the  points  where  the  line  b  I, 
Fiij.  24,  meets  with  the  traces,   and    remembering  that  the  side. 


History  of  the  Plow. 


29 


jli 


a  b  m  I,  which  in  Fig.  22  hiid  vertically  and 
to  the  left  of  the  block,  now  lies  down- 
wards on  its  face,  while  the  side  of  the 
wedge  a  d  m  {a  d  being  thirteen  and  a  half 
inches)  now  lies  vertically  and  is  on  the 
leftside  of  the  block;  now  continue  the 
stroke  along  these  traces  until  both  ends 
of  the  saAV  approach  within  an  inch,  or  any 
other  convenient  distance  of  the  finished 
face  of  the  mould-  board.  When  each  of 
the  traces  have  been  thus  sawn  through, 
remove  the  sawn  parts  with  some  conven- 
ient tool,  as  before,  and  the  mould-board 
is  finished. 

Any  one  who  will  have  the  patience  to 
fix   in  his  mind  carefully  the  line  left  by 


the  saw  when  its  posterior  end  rests  in  the  line  o  h,  and  its  ante- 
rior end  on  the  diagonal  d  /,  through  each  of  the  twenty-three 
traces  made  upon  the  block,  will  be  enabled  to  conceive  of  the 
exact  twist  of  the  surface  of  the  mould-board;  yet  as  some  minds 
have  a  difficulty  in  realizing  such  warped  surfaces,  we  give 
another  method  which  may  be  more  clear  to  such  readers. 


^/^.  26. 

Suppose  the  saw  cuts  the  lines  m  d  and  o  d,  Fig.  24,  in  the 
points  X  and  t,  in  the  traces  x  z  and  t  s,  parallel  to  a  b  b  o,  and 
the  prolongations  of  wdiich  on  the  triangles  m  d  I  and  Ida  are 
the  lines  x  iv  and  t  lo;  the  saw  must  then  penetrate  the  block, 
remaining  in  the  same  plane  in  question,  until  its  point  has  reached 
the  point  s,  and  at  the  same  time  touch  the  point  w  of  the  central 
diagonal  d  I.  The  fore  end  of  the  saw  will  come  out  at  some 
point,  y,  of  the  face  a  m  d,  so  that  three  points,  s  lo  y,  will  be  in 
the  same  straight  line.  But  if  this  operation  be  repeated  in  dif- 
ferent places  of  the  lines,  m  d  and  o  d,   bringing  the  edge  down 


30  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

along  the  traces  to  the  line  o  h,  at  the  rear,  and  the  line  d  /,  in 
front,  the  fore  part  of  the  saw  will  come  out  on  the  face,  a  m  d, 
as  we  go  on  towards  c,  at  constantly  varying  elevations  above  the 
line  a  m.  If  we  now  connect  the  points  thus  made  by  the  saw  on 
the  face,  a  m  d,  the  line  traced  between  them  will  be  the  line 
';  f/  d,  Figs.  24  and  25.  Beyond  this  height  the  saw,  directed  in 
the  same  manner,  will  come  out  at  other  points  situated  on  the 
posterior  face,  a  b  m  I,  and  a  line  connecting  these  points,  as 
before,  will  form  the  second  of  these  curves  on  both  figs.,  n,  ?, 
which  will  meet  the  first  in  the  point  n. 

These  two  curves  being  traced  out,  let  us  sui:)pose  straight  lines 
drawn  to  the  places  where  the  saw  stopped  each  time  that  it 
touched  the  diagonal,  d  I,  and  of  which  one,  as  already  said,  passes 
through  the  points  s  w  y;  and  let  us  conceive  a  surface  touching 
all  these  straight  lines,  and  w^hose  limits,  on  the  one  hand,  shall 
be  the  curves  d  y  n,  I  n,  and  on  the  other  the  line  o  //.,  this  sur- 
face, which  must  be  uncovered  by  sections  made  with  a  proper 
instrument,  will  form  one  of  the  faces  of  the  mould-hoard,  which 
is  represented  hj  d  n  I  o  c,  Fig.  25,  where  c  y  represents  the  per- 
pendicular and  the  point  d  curves  over  towards  the  spectator  four 
and  a  half  inches  beyond  the  point  c.  The  share,  I  o  x,  has  been 
added  to  show  how  the  plow  looks  when  finished. 

To  make  the  opposite  face  of  the  mould-board,  the  thickness 
thereof  having  been  determined  by  the  thickness  of  d  e  k  i,  Fig. 
24,  at  one  and  a  half  inches,  let  us  first  conceive  that  there  has 
])een  traced  out,  proceeding  from  the  points,  the  cuvve  c  u  p, 
])arallel  to  d  y  n,  and  then  proceeding  from  the  pointy,  the  curve 
])  q,  parallel  to  n  I. 

Let  us  next  suppose  that  the  saw  cuts  the  edge  h  I  of  the  face 
h  ami  in  the  point  cc',  situated  in  the  same  plane  as  z  x,  t  s,  which 
plane  has  been  taken,  for  example,  in  regard  to  the  anterior  face 
of  the  mould-board.  The  saw  must  be  directed  along  the  traces 
x'  z  and  x'  s,  in  such  a  manner  that  its  motion  shall  stop  at  the 
term  where  its  edge,  on  the  one  hand,  shall  touch  the  curve  e  p, 
in  the  point  v,  situated  on  the  trace  x  z,  and,  on  the  other,  shall 
be  situated  parallel  to  the  line  s  w  ?/,  at  which  the  saw  stopped 
on  the  other  side  of  the  mould-board.  The  edge  of  the  saw  will 
then  cut  the  face  oi  b  I  o  c,  in  some  point  t ',  so  situated  that  the 
straight  line  drawn  through  that  point  and  the  point  w,  shall  be 
parallel  to  the  straight  line  which  passes  through  the  point  s  lo  y. 
If  you  continue  cutting  in  the  same  manner,  with  the  saw,  differ- 


History  of  the  Flow. 


31 


eiit  points  of  the  edge  h  /,  those  by  which  it  comes  out  will  form, 
on  the  face  b  I  o  c,  a  curve  j  s  q;  and  if,  through  these  points  and 
those  corresponding  to  them  in  the  lines  e p  and  jp  q,  there  will 
be  diaMm  straight  lines,  such  as  that  which  passes  through  z  and 
w,  which  we  have  taken  as  an  example,  the  surface  touching  these 
straight  lines,  and,  uncovered  by  means  of  any  sharp  instrument, 
will  form  the  remainder  oH  j  h  o  I  q  t'  of  the  plane  bloc,  being 
the  opposite  side  of  the  mould-board. 

It  is  fixed  to  the  plow  by  mortising  the  fore  part,  o  Z,  Fig.  25, 
into  the  posterior  end  of  the  share,  which  must  be  made  double, 
like  the  handle  of  a  pocket  comb,  that  it  may  receive  and  secure 
this  fore  part  of  the  mould-l>oard.  A  screw  nail  is  then  made  to 
pass  through  the  mould-board  and  the  handle  of  the  share  at  the 
place  of  their  contact,  and  two  other  screw  nails  pass  through  the 
tail  of  the  mould-board  and  the  right  handle  of  the  plow.  The 
part  of  the  tail  which  passes  be3'ond  the  handle  must  be  cut 
diagonally,  and  the  work  will  be  finished. 

^  We  have  thus  given  the  plan  of  forming 
the  mould-board  in  full  detail,  so  that  the 
principle  of  its  construction  maybe  clearly 
understood;  })ut  Mr.  Jefferson  found,  in 
actual  practice,  that  some  modifications  of 
it  might  be  usefully  made.  Thus,  he  says: 
"  Instead  of  beginning  to  form  the  block 
as  represented  hy  a  b  c  d,  Fig.  26,  where 
a  b  is   twelve  inches  in   length,  and  the 


111 


J^i^.  26. 
an^le  at  b  is  a  riorht  one,  I  cut  off  towards  the 
bottom  and  along  the  whole  length,  b  c,  of  the 
block  a  Avedge,  b  c  e,  the  line  e  b  being  equal  to 
the  thickness  of  the  bar  of  the  share  (which  I  sup- 
pose to  be  one  and  a  half  inches);  for,  as  the  face 
of  the  wing  inclines  from  the  bar  to  the  ground,  if 
the  block  were  placed  on  the  share,  without  taking 
into  the  account  this  inclination,  the  side  a  b  would  i  | 
lose  its  perpendicular  direction,  and  the  side  a  d 
would  cease  to  be  horizontal.  Besides,  instead  of 
leaving  at  the  top  of  the  block  a  breadth  of  thir- 
teen and  a  half  inches  from  m  to  w,  I  remove  from 
the  right  side  a  kind  of  wedge,  n  d  z  c  p,  of  one 
and  a  half  inches  in  thickness,  Fig.  27;  because  experience  has 


32  Repobt  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

shown  me  that  the  tail  which,  by  these  means,  has  become  more 
oblique,  as  c  z,  instead  of  d  i,  fits  more  conveniently  to  the  side 
of  the  handle;  the  diagonal  of  the  upper  face  is  consequently 
removed  back  from  a  to  c,  and  we  have  m  c,  instead  of  m  d,  us 
above.  These  modifications  may  be  easily  comprehended  by 
/hose  acquainted  with  the  general  principle." 

This  method,  devised  by  Mr.  Jefferson,  removing,  as  it  does, 
the  formation  of  the  plow  out  of  the  domain  of  empiricism,  and 
enabling  workmen  in  diflerent  sections  of  the  country,  without 
communicating  with  each  other,  to  form  their  mould-boards  pre- 
cisely alike,  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  towards 
the  perfecting  of  plows  that  has  ever  been  made  by  any  one  man, 
and  will  always  entitle  him  to  a  conspicuous  place  among  the 
benefactors  of  agriculture. 

But  the  credit  that  we  award  to  him  must  be  confined  to  the 
service  which  he  rendered  in  demonstrating  that  plows  could  be 
made  by  rule,  and  to  the  actual  discovery  of  one  of  the  many 
rules  that  are  applicable  to  the  formation  of  the  mould-board. 

A  very  slight  examination  of  Mr.  Jefierson's  method  will  show 
its  very  great  defects.  For  instance,  the  overhang  of  the  wing  to 
the  right,  e  d,  Fig.  19,  is  only  four  and  one-half  inches.  This 
would  only  be  sufiicient  to  turn  the  furrow  slice,  when  it  was 
turned  down  hill,  or,  on  some  soils,  it  would  answer  on  a  level, 
but,  on  other  soils,  it  would  be  quite  insufiicient  to  invert  the  slice, 
while  it  would  be  sure  to  tumble  back  into  its  original  position 
when  the  furrow  was  turned  up  the  hill.  Modern  practice  shows 
that  no  plow  can  be  safely  relied  on  to  invert  the  furrow  where 
Ihe  overhang  is  less  than  forty-five  degrees. 

To  make  this  angle,  the  line  e  d,  Fig.  18,  must  be  made  twelve 
inches  instead  of  four  and  a  half  inches.  Then,  to  complete  the 
plow,  according  to  Mr.  Jefferson's  rule,  the  perpendiculary  would 
be  advanced  six  inches  towards  c,  and  the  line  gr  h  would  be 
carried  forward,  so  that  it  would  stand  within  five  and  a  quarter 
inches  of  the  point  c.  It  will  be  very  obvious  that  such  a 
degree  of  bluntness  would  be  impracticable  without  an  expendi- 
ture of  power  which  no  farmer  could  afford  to  throw  away.  In 
other  words,  the  rule  is  only  applicable  when  we  have  an  imprac- 
ticable rear  wing  to  the  mould-board  or  an  impracticable  share. 

The  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  is  quite  too  long,  increasing 
the  friction  very  unnecessarily.     In  our  best  modern  plows  the 


History  of  the  Plow.  33 

vcrl  icnl  sections  of  the  mould-board  are  either  concave  or  convex, 
accordino;  as  the  soil  is  too  lio^ht  or  too  still'.  The  vertical  sections 
of  Mr.  Jefferson's  would  be  all  rectilinear,  which  are  not  as  favor- 
able for  good  and  easy  plowing  as  curves. 

The  straight  diagonal  line,  m  d,  used  as  the  generator  of  Mr. 
eTctferson's  twisted  surface,  should  have  been  a  curve  instead  of  a 
.straight  line. 

Tile  reception  of  the  front  edge  of  the  mould-board  into  a  cavity 
ill  the  posterior  edge  of  the  share,  and  secured  by  a  single  screw 
nail,  suggests  great  weakness  where  great  strength  is  required. 
The  connection  of  the  tail  of  the  mould-board  with  the  handle, 
by  two  screw  nails,  is  quite  too  weak  a  connection,  and  would  of 
itself  condemn  the  plow  in  modern  markets. 

Mr.  Jefferson  seems  to  have  confined  his  attention  solely  to  the 
mould-board,  overlooking  the  sole,  the  land  side,  the  position  of 
the  beam  and  cutter,  with  reference  to  the  plane  of  the  land  side 
altogether.  It  will  be  seen,  as  we  advance,  that  these  points  are 
all  of  radical  importance,  and  that  no  perfection  of  the  mould- 
board  can  compensate  for  their  defects. 

At  the  conclusion  of  his  paper  he  says  that,  having  satisfied 
himself  that  the  plan  that  he  has  laid  down  is  the  best,  he  pro- 
poses in  future  to  have  his  mould-boards  made  of  cast  iron.  This 
is  the  first  allusion  that  we  have  met  with  in  an  American  author 
to  the  use  of  cast  iron  for  the  plow.  If  we  are  correct  in  this,  it 
adds  greatly  to  his  credit. 

The  first  of  any  idea,  on  Mr.  Jefferson's  part,  of  improving  the 
plow,  which  Mr.  Randall  finds  among  his  papers,  is  contained  in 
his  journal  of  a  tour  in  Germany,  made  in  the  year  1788,  when 
he  was  American  Ambassador  in  France.  In  passing  through 
Lorraine,  along  the  banks  of  the  Meurthe,  he  frequently  alighted 
to  observe  the  teams  and  the  implements  of  the  farmers  who  were 
engaged  in  plowing  by  the  wayside.  Some  of  the  plows  thus 
examined  were  more  remote  from  the  improved  forms  of  the 
present  day  than  those  traced  in  the  hieroglyphics  of  early 
Egypt.  Stopping  for  a  night  at  Nancy,  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
dutchy,  he  made  an  entry  in  his  journal,  from  which  the  following 
is  an  extract:  "  Oxen  plow  here  with  collars  and  hames.  The 
awkward  fig-ure  of  their  mould-boards  leads  one  to  consider  what 
should  be  its  form.  The  offices  of  the  mould-board  are  to  receive 
the  sod  after  the  share  has  cut  under  it,  to  raise  it  gradually  and 


34  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

to  reverse  it.  The  fore  end  of  it  should  therefore  be  horizontal, 
to  enter  under  the  sod,  and  the  hind  end  perpendicular,  to  throw 
it  over;  the  intermediate  surface  changing  gradually  from  the 
horizontal  to  the  perpendicular.  It  should  be  as  wide  as  the  fur- 
row, and  of  a  length  suited  to  the  construction  of  the  plow." 
He  then  gives  diagrams  and  descriptions,  which  have  already  been 
described  in  detail.  The  entries  in  the  journal  show  that  the 
whole  plan  was  at  that  time  clearly  developed  in  his  mind. 

When  he  resided  in  Philadelphia,  as  Secretary  of  State  under 
General  Washington,  he  consulted  the  celebrated  David  Ritten- 
house  as  to  whether  his  proposed  plow  was  founded  on  mathe- 
matical principles,  and  Mr.  Rittenhouse,  after  a  careful  examination 
of  the  whole  question,  made  that  fact  demonstrable. 

In  1793  Mr.  Jeiferson,  as  we  are  informed  by  Mr.  Randall,  put 
his  theory  to  the  test  of  practical  experiment.  He  had  several 
plows  made  after  his  patterns,  and  put  into  use  on  his  estates,  in 
Albemarle  and  Bedford  counties,  in  Virginia,  and  became  fully 
satisfied  of  their  practical  utility. 

Mr.  Strickland,  a  member  of  the  English  board  of  agriculture, 
travelled  in  this  country  and  saw  these  plows  in  operation.  Being 
much  pleased  with  their  operation,  he  took  home  drawings  of 
them,  which  he  submitted  to  his  associates  in  the  board.  They 
were  so  highly  approved  that  Jefi'erson  was  elected  as  an  honorary 
member  of  the  board,  and  was  requested  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  its 
president,  to  forward  a  model  and  a  full  description  of  his  inven- 
tion. Mr.  Jefterson  complied  with  his  request,  and  the  letter  to 
Sir  John  was  printed  in  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  from  which 
we  have  compiled  the  preceding  account  of  his  invention. 

The  originality  of  Mr.  Jeflerson's  discovery  Avas  contested  by 
William  Amos,  in  a  communication  published  in  1808,  hut  he  gives 
no  proofs  of  it,  and  Mr.  Jefferson  certainly  was  not  foolish  enough 
to  present  his  method  as  original  to  two  learned  societies,  who  had 
the  means  of  at  once  detecting  the  imposture.  The  fact  that 
these  bodies,  the  French  Academy  and  tlie  English  Board  of 
Agriculture,  acknowledged  the  invention  to  be  his  own,  must 
forever  set  the  question  at  rest. 

The  discovery  has  also  been  claimed  for  James  Small,  but  Sir 
John  Sinclair  distinctly  states  that  Small  perfected  his  plow 
gradually  and  experimentally,  and  without  the  assistance  of  the 
key  which  Mr.  Jefferson's  princijjle  would  have  given  him.    His  im- 


History  of  the  Plow. 


35 


provements  were  enipirica,!,  and  were  not  at  first  guided  by  any 
mathematical  principles  whatever.  There  can  l)e  no  dou1)t  Avhat- 
ever  that  Mr.  Jefferson  is  solely  entitled  to  the  honor  of  inventing 
the  first  mould-board  made  on  mathematical  principles.  We  have 
inserted  this  account  of  Mr.  Jefferson's  discovery  in  the  chapter 
on  European  plows,  because  his  method  was  first  published  in 
Europe. 


CHAPTER  III. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PLOAV— Continued. 

The  celebrated  James  Small,  of  Scotland,  was  the  next  great 
improver  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  plow-making.  He  was 
the  first  inventor  of  the  cast-iron  plow,  though  the  beam  and 
handle  were  still  made  of  wood.  He  took  the  Rotherham  plow 
as  the  basis,  and  impi'oved  it  in  almost  every  particular. 

He  established  his  manufactory  at  Black  Adder  Mount,  in  Ber- 
wickshire, in  1763,  and  died  about  thirty  years  afterwards;  having 
distinguished  nearly  every  one  of  those  years  by  some  new 
improvement  in  some  of  the  parts.  He  left  the  implement  at  his 
death  so  nearly  perfect  that  to  this  day  it  is  used  in  many  of  the 
largest  and  best  cultivated  districts  in  Scotland,  and  prized  more 
highly  than  any  other.  The  cut,  showing  Small's  chain  plow, 
Fig.  28,  gives  his  first  eflbrts  to  improve  the  Rotherham  plow, 
which  will  be  readily  seen  on  a  comparison  of  the  drawings  rep- 
resenting; them. 


jF'iff.  28. 
The  plow  as  finally  perfected  by  Small,  and  generally  known 
as  the  East  Lothian  Plow,  has  attained  to  so  high  a  degree  of 
celebrity,  and  proved  itself  so  advantageous  to  farmers,  that  we 
propose  to  give  its  details  very  fully,  from  Stephens'  Book  of  the 
Farm. 


36  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Plate  II,  fig.  49,  rejDresents  an  elevation  of  the  plow  on  the 
furrow  side,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  foot,  and  Fig.  50,  a 
horizontal  plan  of  the  same.  It  is  found  with  various  shades  of 
difference,  but  not  to  the  extent  or  of  such  marked  character  as 
to  require  separate  description  from  what  follows.  The  l)eam 
aud  handles  are  almost  invariably  made  of  malleable  iron,  the 
body  frame  being  of  cast  iron,  the  latter  varying  slightly  with 
different  makers.  In  its  construction  the  beam  and  left  handle 
are  usually  finished  in  one  continued  bar,  ABC,  possessing  the 
varied  curvature  exhibited  in  Fig.  49,  as  viewed  in  elevation. 
When  viewed  in  plan,  as  in  Fig.  50,  the  axis  or  central  line  of  the 
beam  and  left  handle  are  in  a  straight  line,  though  in  this  arrange- 
ment there  are  some  slight  deviations  among  the  different  makers — 
the  point  of  the  beam  being  in  some  cases  turned  more  or  less  to 
the  right  or  furrow  side,  and  this  is  found  to  vary  from  one-half 
inch  to  two  inches  from  the  plane  of  the  land  side.  The  right 
handle,  D  E,  is  formed  on  a  separate  bar,  and  is  attached  to  the 
body  frame  at  its  fore  end  by  a  bolt,  as  will  be  shown  in  detail, 
and  farther  connected  to  the  left  handle  by  the  bolts  F  F  F  and 
the  stays  G  G.  The  coulter,  I,  is  fixed  in  its  box,  K,  by  means  of 
iron  wedges  holding  it  in  the  proper  position.  Its  ofiice  being 
that  of  a  cutting  instrument,  it  is  constructed  with  a  sharp  edge, 
and  is  set  at  an  angle  of  from  55  deg.  to  65  deg.  with  the  base  line. 
The  mould-board,  L,  which  is  fixed  upon  the  body  frame  and  to 
the  right  handle,  is  a  curved  plate  of  cast  iron,  adapted  for  turn- 
ing over  the  furrow  slice.  Its  fore  edge  or  breast,  M  N,  coincides 
with  the  land  side  of  the  plow's  body;  its  lower  edge,  T,  behind, 
stands  from  nine  to  ten  inches  distant  from  the  plane  of  the  land 
side,  while  its  upper  edge,  P,  spreads  out  to  a  distance  of  nine- 
teen inches  from  B,  the  land  side  plane.  In  this  plow  the  mould- 
board  is  truncated  in  the  fore  part,  and  is  met  by  the  gorge  or 
neck  of  the  share,  the  junction  being  at  the  line  N.  The  sJiare 
or  soch,  N  R,  is  fitted  upon  a  prolono:ation  of  the  sole  bar  of  the 
body  frame  termed  the  head,  and  falls  into  the  curves  of  the 
mould-board,  of  which  its  surface  forms  a  continuation.  The 
bridle,  C,  or  muzzle,  as  it  is  sometimes  named,  is  that  part  to 
which  the  draught  is  applied,  and  is  attached  to  the  point  of  the 
beam  by  two  bolts,  the  one,  S,  being  permanent,  upon  which  the 
bridle  turns  vertically.  The  other  l)olt,  U,  is  movable,  for 
the  purpose  of  varying  the  earthing  of  the  plow;  the  landing 
being  varied  by  shifting  the  draught  bolt  and  shackle,  Y,  to  right 


History  of  the  Plow,  37 

or  left.  The  right  and  left  handles  are  furnished  at  A  and  D  with 
wooden  helves,  fitted  into  the  sockets  of  the  handles.  If  any  one 
Avill  take  the  trouble  to  compare  the  means  employed  in  Jethro 
TulFs  plow,  Plate  I,  to  make  the  plow  run  deeper  or  shallower, 
more  to  land  or  from  land,  with  the  arrangements  for  this  purpose 
in  the  Rotherham  plow.  Fig.  16,  they  will  see  that  a  great 
advance  has  been  made,  but  an  inspection  of  Small's  bridle,  as 
shown  in  the  plate,  will  demonstrate  that  much  more  convenience 
and  certainty  has  been  attained  by  him  in  this  respect,  and  nothing 
since  has  been  invented  to  accomplish  this  object  which  can  be 
pronounced  materially  superior  to  it. 

The  general  dimensions  of  this  plow  may  be  stated  thus,  as 
measured  on  the  base  line:  From  the  zero  point,  O,  to  the 
extremity  of  the  heel,  T,  the  distance  is  four  inches,  and  from  O 
forwards  to  the  point  of  the  share,  R,  the  distance  is  thirty-two 
inches — giving  as  the  entire  length  of  the  sole,  three  feet.  Again, 
from  O  backward  to  the  extremity  of  the  handles.  A',  is  six  feet 
two  inches,  and  forward  to  the  draught  bolt,  V,  four  feet  seven 
inches,  making  the  entire  length  of  the  plow  on  the  base  line  ten 
feet  nine  inches;  but,  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  beam  and 
handle,  the  entire  length  from  A  to  C  is  about  eleven  feet  three 
inches.  Although  we  have  explained  the  word  zero,  used  above, 
in  the  chapter  "On  the  Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow,"  yet, 
as  it  is  a  point  of  great  importance  in  regulating  the  proportions 
of  the  implement,  and  has  received  very  little  attention  from 
American  plow  makers,  we  here  observe  that  the  zero  line  is  that 
which,  on  the  surface  of  the  mould-board,  where  a  vertical  trans- 
verse section  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  land  side  falls, 
which  is  distant  from  that  plane  by  a  space  equal  to  the  greatest 
breadth  of  the  furrow  taken  by  the  respective  plows.  The  zero 
point  is  found  on  this  line,  at  an  altitude  above  the  sole  the  exact 
height  of  the  furrow  slice.  Or  we  may  define  it  as  that  vertical 
section  of  the  mould-board  which,  in  its  progress  under  the  slice, 
will  just  touch  the  latter  when  in  a  vertical  position.  The  scale 
in  this  arrano-ement  counts  riiiht  and  left  of  zero. 

In  reference  to  the  body  of  the  plow,  the  center  of  the  coulter 
box,  K,  is  fourteen  and  a  half  inches,  and  the  top  of  the  breast 
curve,  M,  nine  inches  before  the  zero  point,  both  as  measured  on 
the  base  line;  but,  following  the  rise  of  the  beam,  the  distance 
from  M  to  the  middle  of  the  coulter  box  will  be  seven  inches. 

The  heights  at  the   different   points   above   the  base   line   arc 


38  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

marked  ou  the  figure  in  elevation,  along  the  upper  edge  of  the 
beam  and  handle;  but  the  chief  points  in  height  are  repeated 
here,  the  whole  of  them  being  measured  from  the  base  line 
to  the  upper  edge  of  the  beam  and  handles  at  the  respective 
points.  At  the  left  handle,  A,  the  height  is  three  feet,  at  the 
light  handle,  D,  two  feet  nine  inches;  and  a  like  difference  in  the 
height  of  the  two  is  preserved  till  the  right  handle  approaches 
the  body  at  the  middle  stretcher,  F;  thence  the  difference  increases 
till  it  reaches  the  body.  The  height  at  the  point  of  the  beam 
is  eighteen  inches,  and  the  centre  of  the  draught  bolt,  at  amediuni, 
seventeen  inches.  The  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  behind, 
of  this  plow  at  T,  is  usually  set  about  half  an  inch  above  the  base 
line,  and  at  the  junction  with  the  share  about  the  same  height. 

The  dimensions  in  breadth^  from  the  land  side  line,  embrace  the 
o1)liquity  that  is  given  to  the  direction  of  the  beam  and  handles, 
compared  with  the  land  side  plane  of  the  body  taken  at  the  sole. 
The  amount  of  obliquity,  as  exhibited  by  the  dotted  line,  A  C, 
Fig.  50,  which  coincides  with  the  land  side  plane  of  the  body, 
is  that  the  axis  of  the  beam  at  the  extremity  C  stands  one  and  a 
quarter  inches  to  the  right,  and,  at  the  opposite  end,  the  left 
handle.  A,  stands  about  two  inches  to  the  left  of  the  line.  These 
points  may,  however,  be  raised  slightly  from  the  dimensions  here 
given.  In  the  first — the  point  of  the  beam — it  is  found  in  the 
practice  of  different  makers  to  range  from  one  to  two  inches. 

The  dimensions  of  the  parts  of  the  frame  work  of  the  plow 
are:  The  beam,  at  its  junction  with  the  mould-board  at  M,  is  from 
two  and  a  half  to  two  and  three-quarter  inches  in  depth,  by  one 
inch  in  breadth — the  same  strength  being  preserved  onward  to 
the  coulter  box,  K.  From  the  last  point  a  diminution  in  breadth 
and  depth  begins,  which  is  carried  on  to  the  extremity,  c,  Avhei-e 
the  beam  has  a  depth  of  one  and  three-quarter  inches,  and  a  breadth 
of  one-half  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch. 

The  coulter  box  is  formed  Ijy  piercing  an  oblong  mortise  throngh 
2 he  bar,  which  has  been  previously  forged  with  a  protuberance  at 
this  place,  on  each  side  and  at  the  upper  edge;  the  mortise  is  two 
and  one-half  inches  I)y  three-quarters  of  an  inch. 

From  the  junctioji  with  the  mould-boar«l  at  IM,  backward,  the 
beam  decreases  gradnally  till,  at  the  hind  palm  of  the  body  at  B, 
it  is  two  inches  in  depth  and  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  breadth 
where  it  merges  in  the  left  handle,  A.  This  last  member  retains 
a  nearly  nnifoim  size  thioiighoul  of  two  inches  by  three-eiijhths 


History  of  the  Plow. 


39 


of  all  inch.  The  rii^ht  handle,  D,  is  somewhat  lighter,  being 
iisnally  one  and  one-half  inches  by  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and 
l>()th  terniinate  in  welded  sockets  which  receive  wooden  helves  of 
six  or  eight  inches  in  length.  The  stretchers,  FFF,  which  snp- 
port  and  retain  the  handles  at  their  dne  distance  apart,  are  in 
length  snited  to  their  positions  in  the  handles,  and  their  thickness 
is  abont  three-qnarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  tapering  toward  the 
ends,  Avhere  thev  terminate  in  a  collar  and  tail  bolt  with  a  screwed 
mit.  The  nppcr  stretcher  has  also  a  semicircular  stay  riveted  to 
its  middle,  the  tails  of  the  stays,  G  G,  terminating,  like  the 
stretcher,  with  screwed  tails  and  nuts. 

Having  given  the  general  dimensions  and  outline  description  of 
this  plow,  there  remains  to  be  described  the  details  of  the  body 
frame  and  its  sheathing,  all  the  figures  of  which  are  on  a  scale  of 
one  and  one-half  inches  to  one  foot. 

The  Body  Frame. — The  different  view^s  of  the  body  frame  are 
exhibited  in  the  Figs.  29  and  30,  wherein  the  same  letters  refer  to 

1' 


WATERS-SON  Sa.lV.Y. 


J^iff.  29. 


the  corresponding  parts  in  the  different  figures.  Fig.  29  is  an 
elevation  of  the  furrow  side;  Fig.  30  a  plan  of  the  sole  bar  of  the; 
frame  inverted;  and  a  vertical  section  on  the  line  XX  is  given  in 


m. 


Fiff.  30. 

Fig.  31.  In  all  the  figures,  then,  aaa\%  the  sole  bar,  with  two 
arms,  h  and  c,  extending  upwards,  and  having  at  the  lower  edge 
a  flaniro,  d^  running  alono;  the  right  hand  side.      Each  of  the  arms, 


40  Rerort  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

b,  c,  terminates  in  a  palm,  ef,  by  which  it  is  bolted  to  the  beam. 
The  arm,  c,  is  furnished,  besides,  with  an  oblique  palm  or  ear,  gr, 
upon  which  the  fore  edge  of  the  mould-board  rests  and  to  which 
it  is  bolted.  The  sole  bar,  a,  with  its  flange,  terminates  forward 
in  the  head,  h,  which  is  here  made  to  form  the  commencement  of 
the  twist  of  the  mould-board,  and  upon  which  the  share  is  fitted, 
reaching  to  the  dotted  line,  zi,  Fig.  29.  The  fore  edge,  kil,  of 
the  frame  is  worked  into  the  curve,  answering  to  the  oblique  sec- 
tion of  the  fore  edge  or  breast  of  the  mould-board,  and  serves  as 
a  support  to  the  latter  throughout  their  junction.  The  curvature 
given  to  the  arm,  5,  is  unimportant  to  the  action  of  the  plow,  but 
the  general  oblique  direction  here  given  to  it  is  well  adapted  to 
withstand  the  thrust  constantly  exerted  in  that  direction  when  the 
plow  is  at  work.  In  Fig.  30,  the  sloping  edge,  d  m,  represents 
the  enlargement  of  the  sole  bar  on  which  the  share  is  fitted  and 
where  the  lower  part  of  the  fore  edge  of  the  mould-board  rests. 
The  depressed  portion,  m  n,  is  that  which  is  embraced  by  the 
flange  of  the  share.  In  the  frame,  o,  is  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
right  handle  broken  ofi"  at  o,  to  show  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
joined  to  the  sole  flange  of  the  frame  by  the  bolt,  p.  The  bolt 
holes,  q  q,  are  those  by  which  the  beam  is  secured  to  the  palms 
of  the  frame;  r  r  are  those  by  which  the  land  side  i^late  is  attached, 
and  s  s  those  of  the  sole  shoe,  t,  being  that  which 
secures  the  mould-board  to  the  ear,  and  u  that  which 
receives  the  lower  stretcher  of  the  handles.  (See 
Fig.  50,  Plate  II,  at  F  and  O.)  The  letter  v  marks 
the  second  bolt  hole  of  the  mould-board,  while  its 
third  fixture  is  effected  upon  the  right  handle  by  the 
^S  intervention  of  a  l)];acket,  or  of  a  bolt  and  socket  as 
seen  at  o,  Plate  II.  The  curved  lines,  to  w,  mark  the 
position  of  the  beam  when  attached  to  the  body, 
the  beam  being  received  into  the  seats  formed  on  the 
land  side  of  the  palms,  <?, /,  as  seen  more  distinctly  at 
^  w  m  h\g.  ol. 

The  body  frame  being  an  important  member  of  the  implement, 
regard  is  paid  to  having  it  as  light  as  may  be  consistent  with  a 
due  degree  of  strength;  hence,  in  the  different  parts  breadth  has 
been  jriven  them  in  the  direction  of  the  strain,  while  the  thickness 
is  studiously  attenuated  in  such  places  as  can  be  reduced  with 
safety.  The  least  breadth  of  the  sole  bar,  «,  is  three  and  three- 
quarter  inches,  of  the  arm,  c,  four  and  one-half  inches,  and  of  5, 


History  of  the  Plow. 


41 


two  and  one-quarter  inches.  The  breadth  ot  the  sole  flange  is 
two  inches,  the  greatest  thickness  in  any  of  the  parts  is  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch,  and  the  total  weight  of  the  frame  is  thirty 
pounds. 

Tlie  Share. — Figs.  32  to  37  are  illustrations  of  the  share  and 
its  configuration;  Fig.  32  is  a  plan;  Fig.  33  a  geometrical  eleva- 

J3. 


J^iff.  37- 

tion  of  the  furrow  side,  and  Fig.  34  is  a  direct  end  view  looking 
forward,  of  which  a  is  the  boss  adapted  to  the  curvatnre  of  the 
mould-board;  b,  the  land  side  flange,  which  embraces  the  head 
of  the  land  side;  c,  the  sole  flange,  embracing  in  like  manner  the 
head  below;  and  these  three  parts  form  the  neck  or  socket  of  the 
share,  fitting  closely  upon  the  head,  and  being  in  effect  part  of 
the  mould-board.  The  part  d  ef,  Fig.  32,  forms  the  share  proper, 
consisting  of  dee,  the  shield  terminating  in  the  point  e,  and  of 
the  feather  or  cutter  running  oflf  at  the  point  e.  The  extreme 
breadth  of  the  share  in  this  plow,  measuring  from  the  land  side  to 
the  point  g  of  the  feather  (or  the  rear  angle  of  the  feather'),  varies 
from  six  to  six  and  one-half  inches;  and  its  length  in  the  sole, 
including  the  neck,  6,  is  about  sixteen  inches,  the  feather,  g  e, 
being  eleven  inches. 

The  other  figures,  36  and  37,  are  transverse  sections  of  the 
share  on  the  lines  p-p-  and  hh,  respectively,  exhibiting  the  struc- 
ture and  relation  of  the  shield,  and  the  feather  represented  by 
the  line  A'  V,  Fig.  49,  Plate  II,  where,  as  will  be  observed,  the 
cutting  edge,  through  its  entire  length,  lies  within  less  than  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  base  line. 

The   share  is  of  wrouoht  iron,  and  is  always  formed  from  a 


42  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

plate  forged  for  the  express  purpose  at  the  iron  mills,  and  known 
in  the  trade  by  the  term  sock  plate.     Fig.  38  represents  the  form 

in  which  those  plates  are 
0^^ — V-Jl7~~~~'"~^>-^  manufoctured,  the  thick- 

\ \ej  '^^^^^^^^  ness  beino-  from  one-half 


d. 


& 


IvP^ -X^— - ^li  to   three-quarters   of  an 

^^     -_,^  .  ,  -^      ^^  inch;  they  are  afterwards 


'^K^^^^-^^"""^  cut  in  two  through  the 

"  ine  a  b,  each  half  being 

capable  oi  lorming  a 
share.  To  do  this,  an  incision,  c  o,  is  made  on  the  short  side  to  a 
depth  of  two  inches;  the  part  a.  c  d  e\^  afterward  folded  down 
to  form  the  sole  flange,  and  the  part  h  f  g  is  in  like  manner  folded 
dowai  to  form  the  land  side  flange.  The  point  h  is  strengthened, 
when  requisite,  to  receive  the  proper  form  of  the  shield  and 
point,  the  latter  being  tipped  with  steel.  The  edge,  li  c,  is 
extended  to  the  requisite  breadth  to  form  the  feather.  In  order 
to  cut  a  sock  plate  at  the  proper  angle,  so  as  to  secure  a  minimum 
expenditure  of  lal)or  and  material,  let  a  central  line,  h  h,  be  drawn 
upon  the  plate,  and  lu'sect  this  line  in  the  point  A-,  the  line  upon 
which  the  plate  should  be  cut  will  form  angles  of  70  deg.  and  110 
deg.  nearly  with  the  line  Ji  If,  or  mechanically  draw  k  I  equal  to 
five  and  one-half  inches,  at  right  angles  to  hh,  and  draw  h' 
parallel  to  h  h,  mark  off  two  inches  from  I  to  i,  and  through  the 
point  a  i  k  draw  the  line  a  h,  which  is  the  i:)roper  direction  in 
which  the  plate  should  be  cut. 

The  Sole  Shoe. — The  figures  39  to  41  are  illustrative  of  ihc 
sole  shoe.  Fig.  39  is  a  plan  of  the  shoe,  a  a  being  the  sole  flange, 
and  b  b  the  land  side  flange;  Fig.  40  is  an  elevation  of  the  same, 
and  Fig.  41  a  cross  section,  showins:  the  fillinsr  up  of  the  inteiiia! 
angle,  opposed  to  w^here  the  greatest  wear  takes  place. 

The  thickness  of  the  sole  flange  at  the  heel  a  is  seven-cighdis 
of  an  inch,  diminishing  forward  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch  at 
three  inches  from  the  point,  and  thence  it  is  thinned  oft'  to  pi-c- 
vent  obstruction  in  its  progress  through  the  soil.  The  breadlli  cf 
the  sole  is  two  and  one-quarter  inches,  and  its  extreme  leiiglh 
twenty  and  one-half  inches.  The  side  flange  is  one-half  of  an  inch 
thick  along  the  edge,  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  sole,  diminish- 
ing upward  to  one-quarter  of  an  inch  at  the  top  edge,  the  height 
being  four  and  three-quarter  inches  at  the  heel,  and  six  inches  at 
llio  fore  did  ;    \ho  Avoiglit  is  altouf   fourlcon    pounds.      The   upjxT 


History  of  the  Plow. 


43 


land  side  plute  is  eii2:htceii  inches  in  length  on  the  lower  edge, 
beino-  one  and  one-half  inches  longer  than  the  corresponding  edge 
of  the  sole  plate,  the  purpose  of  which  will  be  seen  in  the  figure 
of  the  land  side,  Fig.  46  ;  the  length  of  the  upper  edge  is  twenty- 


one  and  one-half  inches.  The  breadth  and  the  contour  of  the 
upper  edge  must  be  adapted  to  the  form  that  may  have  been 
given  to  the  beam.  The  thickness  at  the  lower  edge  must  agree 
with  that  of  the  sole  plate,  and  be  diminished  to  one-half  of  an 
inch  at  the  upper  edge  ;  weight,  nine  pounds. 

The  coulter,  Fig.  42,  is  an  edge,  and  Fig.  43  a  side  view  of  the 
coulter  of  this  plow,  in  which  the  same  letters  of  reference  are 

a' 'b  c J 

aigpiiiiiiiijiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii^ 


l^iff.  4-3. 

applied.  The  neck  a  b,  by  which  it  is  affixed  in  the  coulter  box, 
is  about  ten  inches  long,  though  it  may,  with  all  propriety,  be 
extended  to  c  /  the  neck  is  usually  about  two  inches  in  breadth,  and 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  blade  bed  varies  in 
length,  according  to  the  variety  of  the  plow  to  which  it  ])e]()ngs, 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  inches.  The  breadth  of  tlie  ])lade  is 
usually  about  three  inches  in  the  upper  part,  but  is  curved  off 
behind,  and  terminating  in  a  point  at  d.  The  thickness  of  the 
back  at  the  shoulder  b  is  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  and  tapers 
gently  downiward  to  where  the  curvature  of  the  back  begins  ; 
thence  it  diminishes  toward  the  point  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  or 
less.     It  is  formed   quite  fiat  on  the  laud  side,  and  on  the  furrow 


44 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


side  is  beveled  oif  towards  the  cutting  edge,  where  it  is  ahout 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick  throughout  the  length  of  the  edge. 

The  Bridle. — Fig.  44  is  a  plan,  and  Fig.  45  is  a  corresponding 
elevation  of  the  bridle,  and  of  the  manner  of  its  attachment  to  the 
beam,  where  a  is  part  of  the  beam,  b  the  cross  head,  and  c  c  the 


JFlff.  4.5. 


.^iff.  44-. 


tails  of  the  bridle,  with  their  arc  heads,  d,  embracing  the  beam  on 
the  two  sides  ;  e  is  the  joint  bolt  on  which  the  bridle  turns  for 
adjustment  to  earthing  ;  /is  the  temper  pin  or  bolt,  and  by  insert- 
ing it  into  any  one  of  the  holes  in  the  arc  heads,  and  passing 
through  the  beam,  which  is  here  perforated  for  the  purpose,  the 
bridh?  is  held  in  fmy  required  position.  The  draught  shackle  g 
is  held  upon  its  place  upon  the  cross  head  b  by  the  draught  bolt 
h  passing  through  both  parts,  and  the  cross  head  being  perforated 
with  five  or  more  holes  ;  the  bolt  or  shackle  can  be  shifted  from 
right  to  left,  or  from  left  to  right,  for  the  proper  adjustment  of 
the  landing  of  the  plow.  To  the  shackle  is  appended  the  swivel 
hook  i,  to  which  is  attached  the  main  draught  bar  or  swiiiijle  tree 
of  the  yoke. 

The  Land  Side. — Figs.  46  and  47  are  illustrations  of  the  IuikI 
side  ;  Fig.  46  being  an  elevation  of  the  body  of  the  plow,  repre 
sented  in  the  working  positions,  but  with  the  extremities  cut  off 
The  point  of  the  share  and  the  heel  rest  upon  the  base  line  at  a 
and  b,  and  the  lines  of  the  sole  lying  between  these  form  the  very 
obtuse  angle,  which  obtains  in  the  sole  of  this  plow  ;  a  c  is  the 
share,  and  d  b  is  the  sole  shoe  ;  e  is  the  land  side  plate,  and  /  g 
is  !i  p;irt  of  the  beam.      The  lines  a  d  and  d  b,  together  with  tlie 


History  of  the  Plow. 


45 


base  line,  form  the  very  low  triangle  a  d  b,  whose  altitude  at  d 
does  not  exceed  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  or  by  extending  the  sole 
line  h  d  to  h,  the  depression  h  a,  of  the  point  of  the  share  below 
this  extended  line,  will  be  one-half  inch  nearly.     Fig.  47  repre- 


li'fff.  4-6. 


o 

'■'■■■■- 


Scale 


Z.Ft. 


sents  a  horizontal  sole  shoe.  Here  a  c  is  the  share,  6  <i  is  the 
sole  flange  of  the  body  frame,  the  bolt  hole  at  b  being  that  by 
which  the  palm  of  the  right  handle  is  fixed  to  the  flange  ;  e  and 
f  the  two  arms  of  the  frame  as  cut  across  in  the  section  g  i,  the 
land  side  of  the  sole  shoe  coinciding  with  the  land  side  plane  ; 
the  continuation  of  this  line  g  i  to  h  exhibits  the  inclination  of  the 
share  to  the  land  side,  which,  in  this  plow,  may  be  taken  at  one- 
half  an  inch. 

The  inclination  downward  given  to  the  share  is  intended,  and 
experience  confirms  the  intention,  to  give  steadiness  of  motion  to 
the  implement  by  giving  it  a  lengthened  base  on  which  to  stand. 
It  is  evident  that  if  a  base  the  converse  of  this  were  given  to  it, 
convex  instead  of  concave,  so  that  it  should  rest  on  the  point  d, 
when  in  motion,  the  smallest  oljstruction  occurring  at  the  point 
of  the  share  would  give  it  a  tendency  to  swerve  from  the  hori- 
zontal line  of  progression,  and  to  lose  either  depth  of  furroAv  or 
be  thrown  out,  thus  rendering  the  management  of  the  plow  very 
difficult  and  uncertain.     Even  a  perfectly  straight  base  is  found 


46 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


not  to  give  the  requisite  certainty  of  action,  without  a  greater 
amount  of  exertion,  as  well  as  closer  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
plowman.  A  like  reason  prevails  for  this  inclination  of  the  share 
landward  as  does  for  its  earthward  inclination;  and,  for  the  steady 
motion  of  the  plow,  the  latter  is  even  more  necessary  than  the 
I'ormer;  but  there  is  another  reason  for  this  landAvard  inclination, 
which  is  that,  as  the  plow  is  seldom  held  with  the  laud  side  truly 
vertical,  but  inclining  a  little  landward,  and  it  being  desirable  to 
cut  the  furrow  slice,  as  near  as  possible,  rectangular,  the  coulter 
has  always  a  slight  tendency  landward  at  the  point;  hence  it 
becomes  necessary  to  give  the  share  a  like  bias.  By  this  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts  the  incision  made  by  the  coulter  will  be  nearly 
vertical.  While  it  is  admitted  that  these  inclinations  of  the  share 
afford  certain  advantages  in  the  action  of  the  plow,  it  must  not  be 
concealed  that  the  practice  is  liable  to  abuse. 

The  curves  of  the  mould-board  of  this  plow  are  given  at  Figs. 
Ill  and  112,  Plate  III.  As  plow  diagrams  in  this  form  are  not 
familiar  to  farmers  and  plow-makers  in  this  country,  it  may  be 
proper  to  give  some  explanation  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
obtained  and  the  precise  lines  of  the  plow  which  they  represent. 
Fio;.  48  represents  the  instrument  by  the  aid  of  which  these  lines 


m 


I^iff.  ^8. 


are  obtained.  Lines  q  r,  o  ^j,  etc.,  are  ruled  on  the  horizontal 
surface  two  inches  apart.  The  plow  to  be  analyzed  is  placed  upon 
the  table,  with  the  plane  of  its  land  side  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  the  table,  its  sole  line  at  right  angles  to  the  ruled  lines  and  the 
front  edge  of  the  mould-board,  t,  on  the  line  iv  m  ti;  draw  the  line 
Im  at  right  angles  to  ivm,  making  it  as  long  as  the  mould-board 


Flaie  III. 

ANALYTICAL    SECTIONS    OF    MOULD-BOARDS. 

Fig.  111.  ^he  East  Lothkr/i.  Fig.  112. 


o  a  b 


Fig.  113.  ^he  Mid  Lothian. 


Fig.  114. 


Fig.  115.  Tihc  Berwickshire. 


Fig.  1 16. 


7_J 

^ 

V 

y 

\ 

L 

"\ 

History  of  the  Plow.  47 

of  the  plow;  ill  is  a  board  about  three  feet  square,  provided  with 
broad  feet  behind,  which  can  be  fastened  securely  to  the  table, 
10  X  m  ?/,  by  means  of  thunil)  screws.  The  two  parallelograms, 
ah  cd  and  cdcf,  are  connected  by  pins,  as  shown  in  the  figuio, 
so  that  all  the  joints  can  work  freely;  the  lower  end  of  the  bar, 
ef,  has  a  stout  Avire,  /,  inserted  into  it  for  a  tracer.  A  sheet  of 
paper,  i'  h',  is  tacked  to  the  board,  i  /t,  at  the  four  corners,  and  a 
tracing  pencil  is  inserted  in  the  socket,  (/.  The  face  of  the  board 
is  now  set  on  the  line  q  r,  the  face  of  the  square,  v  r,  is  set  on  the 
line  2,  the  face,^?  u,  lying  on  the  table  parallel  to  in  I.  The  tracer, 
j,  is  then  brought  up  to  the  top  of  the  mould-board  and  is  carried 
along  to  the  bottom,  touching  the  surface  at  every  point  in  its 
passage,  being  directed  by  the  face,  v  r,  the  line  of  motion  being 
recorded  accurately  by  the  pencil,  </,  on  the  paper,  i'  //.  The  face 
of  the  board  is  now  set  on  the  line  o  jh  and  the  face  of  the  square, 
V  r,  is  placed  on  the  line  2,  and  the  line  2  is  traced  on  the  paper 
as  before.  In  this  way  the  1)oard  is  successively  set  backward  on 
all  the  lines  ruled  on  the  table,  takino-  care  that  its  lower  riorht- 
hand  corner  is  kept  on  the  line  m  I  until  all  the  lines  of  the  mould- 
board  are  transferred  to  the  paper.  A  little  attention  to  the  action 
of  the  jointed  parallelograms,  abed  and  cdef,  will  show  that 
the  path  of  the  pencil,  g,  must  be  exactly  parallel  to  that  of  the 
tracer,  j.  If  the  point  of  the  tracer  passes  down  a  vertical  line, 
the  pencil  will  trace  a  vertical  line  on  the  paper.  If  it  passes 
along  a  horizontal  line,  or  an  angle  of  45  deg.,  or  over  a  convex 
or  concave  line,  precisely  similar  lines  will  be  traced  on  the  paper, 
and  it  is  by  this  method  that  the  lines  of  the  figures  on  Plate  IV 
have  been  traced.  It  may  be,  perhaps,  proper  to  say  that  the 
bars,  ah,  c  d  and  ef,  are  each  three  feet  long,  one  and  one-half 
inches  wide,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick.  The  four  bars, 
a  c,  h  d,  c  e  and  df,  are  of  similar  breadth  and  thickness,  and  are 
all  made  of  hard  wood,  and  are  jointed  together  on  brass  studs, 
care  being  taken  that  the  perforations  are  all  made  exactly  equi- 
distant from  each  other. 

Fig.  Ill  of  Plate  III  is  a  geometrical  elevation  of  Small's  or 
the  East  Lothian  plow  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  land  side  of  the 
mould-board,  I  d  being  its  base  line.  The  perpendicular  lines  of 
division,  commencing  from  the  line  o  o,  or  zero,  and  extending 
right  and  left,  are  the  lines  of  section.  Those  to  the  right  or  fore 
end  of  the  mould-board,  marked  a  a,  bb,  etc.  The  curved  line, 
xi/m,  represents  the  \)a(h  described  on  the  face  of  the  mould-board 


48  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

by  the  lower  land  side  edge  of  the  furrow  slice,  as  the  mould- 
board  passes  under  it,  which  is  called  the  line  of  transit. 

Fig.  112  is  a  front  view  in  elevation  of  the  same  plow,  and  cor- 
responding to  Fig.  Ill,  Plate  III;  km  is  the  base  line,  m  g  is  the 
land  side  plane  in  a  vertical  position,  m  also  is  the  place  of  the 
point  of  the  share,  and  h  i  the  line  of  junction  between  the  neck 
of  the  share  and  the  mould-board;  the  remaining  lines  beyond  h  i 
exhibit  the  outline  of  all  the  sections  taken  by  the  instrument  in 
reference  to  the  lines  in  Fig.  111.  Thus  o  og  m  is  the  section  of 
the  entire  body  of  the  plow  in  the  plane  of  the  zero,  o  y  o  being 
the  outline  of  the  mould-board  at  this  section,  and  y  the  zero 
point;  aagm,  the  lirst  section  forward  of  the  zero,  b  b  g  m,  the 
Sf.cond,  and  so  on.  In  like  manner,  1  Ig  m  is  the  first  section 
backward  from  the  zero,  2  2  g  7n  the  next  section  backward,  and 
so  on,  each  section  so  lettered  and  numbered  having  relation  to 
the  divisions  carrying  the  corresponding  letters  and  numerals  in 
Fig.  111.  The  entire  series  of  lines  112  2,  etc.,  and  a  abb,  etc., 
thus  form  a  series  of  profiles  of  the  mould-board,  supposing  it  to 
be  cut  vertically  by  planes  at  right  angles  to  the  land  side  of  the 
plow.  In  Fig.  112,  also,  the  dotted  line,  m  3/ 5;,  represents  the 
line  of  transit,  as  in  Fig.  Ill,  and  zh  represents  a  transverse  sec- 
tion of  the  slice  as  finally  deposited  by  the  mould-board. 

Mr.  Stephens,  it  will  be  observed,  gives  none  of  the  horizontal 
lines,  confining  himself  wholly  to  the  vertical  lines;  in  fact,  ver}^ 
little  attention  is  paid  to  these  lines  in  any  part  of  Europe,  being 
left  to  arrange  themselves  by  chance  out  of  the  arrangement  of  the 
vertical  lines,  which  alone  receive  attention.  In  this  respect  it 
will  be  seen  hereafter  they  dififer  very  materially  from  the  best 
class  of  American  plows,  in  which  much  attention  is  very  properly 
ffiven  to  the  arrangement  of  the  transverse  lines. 

The  reason  for  this  difl'erence  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  plow- 
men of  Great  Britain  havve  an  almost  superstitious  reverence  for 
the  high  shouldered,  crested  furrow.  The  proprietor  and  the 
plowman  both  delight  to  stand  on  the  headland  when  the  work  is 
done  and  survey  the  even  furrows,  laid  so  straight  that  the  pencil 
rather  than  the  plow  would  seem  to  have  traced  them.  The  fur- 
rows must  be  of  precisely  even  thickness,  in  all  their  length.  No 
departure  from  a  mathematical  straight  line  is  tolerated.  You 
must  see  a  mouse  running  in  the  bottom  of  every  furrow  from 
end  to  end.  But  the  crowning  glory  in  their  eyes  was  to  see  the 
crownino;  auijle  of  the  furrow  slice  unbroken  and  unabraded  from 


History  of  the  Plow.  49 

end  to  end.  The  plow  which  insures  this  result  most  certainly  is 
the  best  plow  in  their  eyes,  even  though  it  should  require  more 
power  to  draw  it,  though  it  should  wear  out  faster,  and  though  it 
were  far  more  costly  than  another. 

The  English  plowmen  would  not  subscribe  to  our  chapter  on 
"  The  Objects  to  be  Accomplished  by  Plowing."  The  plow  is  not 
the  implement  to  pulverize,  in  their  view,  but  the  harrow.  Pul- 
verizing properties  would  be  objectionable  to  them,  as  it  would 
interfere  with  a  sharply  defined  crest.  Since  the  vertical  lines  of 
the  plow  are  those  which  determine  the  shape  of  the  crest,  it  is 
not  Avonderful  that  their  formation  should  have  monopolized  the 
ingenuity  of  the  English  plow  wrights. 

Turning  our  attention  to  the  sections  of  the  various  plows  given 
in  Plates  III  and  IV,  we  shall  see  plainly  enough  that  all  the 
plows  there  given  have  been  constructed  with  reference  to  this 
object.  On  inspecting  Fig.  112  we  see  that  the  lines  of  the  plow 
in  front,  c  c,  b  b  and  a  a,  are  concave  above  the  line  of  transit, 
while  those  in  the  rear  ,  1  1  and  2  2,  are  concave  beloiv  that  line. 
The  lines  in  contact  with  the  slice  are  all  of  them  straight,  or 
nearly  so,  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  the  plan  of  Mr.  Jefferson, 
It  differs  from  his  in  this,  that  as  the  generating  line  of  this  plow 
as  Small  finally  made  it,  is  a  catenary  curve,  Mr.  Jefferson's  gene- 
ratines  line  is  a  straight  line.  This  will  be  understood  l)y  a  recur- 
rence  to  Fig.  18,  which  represents  Mr.  Jefferson's  method  of 
forming  the  twist  of   his  mould-board. 


If  we  now  take  in  elevation.  Fig.  49,  what  is  shown  in  plan  in 
Fig.  18,  by  erecting  a  post,  d  d',  twelve  inches  high  at  the  point 
d.  and  stretching  a  cord  tightly  from  d '  to  b,  we  shall  have  Mr. 
4 


50  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Jefferson's  generating  line;  one  end  of  a  twelve-inch  rule  carried 
along  from  b  to  d',  Fig.  49,  and  the  other  end  along  e  c,  Fig.  18, 
will  describe  the  twist  of  his  mould-board  in  the  air.  The  twist 
of  Small's  mould-board  is  obtained  by  extending  the  cord  d'  b, 
and  suffering  the  slack  to  fall  by  its  own  gravity,  when  it  will 
assume  the  curve  d'  o  b.  One  end  of  the  ruler  being  carried 
from  b  through  o,  along  to  d ',  Fig.  49,  and  the  other  along  the 
line  e  c,  Fig.  18,  will  describe  in  the  air  the  twist  of  Small's 
mould-board.  By  the  substitution  of  a  curved  line  for  a  straight 
one,  Small  obtains  a  wider  wing  without  making  the  fore  part  of 
the  plow  too  blunt,  and  thus  insures  the  result  so  highly  coveted 
by  the  British  plowman,  of  giving  a  high  sharp  crest  to  the 
furrow.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  any  practical  purpose  which  is 
obtained  in  giving  concavit}'^  to  the  parts  above  the  transit  line  in 
the  fore  part,  and  below  it  in  the  hind  part  of  Small's  plow.  The 
zero  line  o  o,  it  wall  he  seen,  makes  a  very  small  angle  with  the 
line  which  at  first  was  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  slice,  but  which 
has  now  assumed  a  vertical  position,  and  hence  there  is  a  corres- 
pondingly small  tendency  to  break  off  or  abrade  the  corner  y, 
which,  when  finally  deposited,  forms  the  crest.  The  angle  thus 
formed  with  the  lower  face  of  the  furrow  slice  is  much  smaller 
than  in  the  Rotherham  plow,  which  had  a  tendency  to  break  off 
the  crest,  and  it  is  to  this  circumstance  more  than  its  superior 
lightness  and  its  improved  mechanical  construction  that  the  great 
popularity  of  Small's  plow  was  owing. 

The  next  improvement  in  the  plow"  was  made  by  Mr.  Wilkie, 
of  Uddingstone,  near  Glasgow.  We  have  used  the  word  "  improve- 
ment;" we  had  better  have  used  the  word  alteration,  for  until 
this  day  it  is  not  fairly  settled  that  it  is  really  better  than  Small's. 
It  is  noAV  generally  known  as  the  Lanarkshire  Plow.  The  body 
frame,  which  in  Small's  plow,  Fig.  28,  is  made  of  cast  iron,  is 
made  of  malleable  iron  in  the  Lanarkshire;  the  two  arms,  b  and 
c,  instead  of  being  bolted  to  the  frame  are  welded  to  it,  and  form 
prolongations  from  the  beam  and  left  handle.  The  bridle,  coulter 
and  some  other  parts  show  trifling  variations  of  form,  but  nothing 
diflers  in  principle  from  Small's,  except  that  it  is  provided  with 
two  very  useful  appendages,  which  should  be  attached  to  all 
plows,  as  they  save  much  time,  and  their  presence  will  induce 
the  plow^nan  to  temper  his  irons  and  keep  the  plow  in  nuieh 
better  condition  for  work  than  he  Avould   do   in  their  absence. 


Ill  STORY  OF  THE  PlOW. 


51 


They  are  the  plow-stufF  and  hummer  nut-kc}',  represented  in  Fig. 
50  and  Fiir.  51. 


J^/(/.  50. 

Comparing  the  sections  of  this  plow, 
Plate  III,  figs.  117  and  118,  it  will  be  seen 
I^ig.  6/.  that  the  lines  are  sharply  convex,  which 

"will  increase  its  pulverizing  power,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  and 
it  will  also  be  seen  that  the  zero  line  o  o  coincides  for  half  its  length 
with  the  face  of  the  furrow  slice  in  its  vertical  position,  and  there- 
fore has  less  tendency  to  rub  the  angle  at  y,  than  Small's  plow. 
It  is  two  inches  narrower  from  the  beam  to  the  rear  upper  angle 
of  the  mould-board;  the  left  handle  stands  nine  inches  farther  to 
the  left.  The  edge  of  the  feather  rises  from  the  point  to  the  rear 
angle  of  the  feather.  The  Mid  Lothian  Plow  partakes  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Lanarkshire  and  East  Lothian  phjws.  The 
curves  of  its  mould-board,  as  seen  in  Plate  III,  figs.  113  and  114, 
show  a  tendency  to  convexity  in  the  extreme  lower  part,  while 
the  greater  portion  of  the  upper  part  are  straight,  like  Small's. 
The  zero  line  makes  a  smaller  angle  with  the  vertical  furrow- 
slice,  and  has  therefore  less  tendency  to  disturb  it.  Its  share 
rises  from  the  point  to  the  rear  corner  of  the  feather,  like  that  of 
the  Lanarkshire,  and  it  wall  of  course  leave  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  as  represented  in  Fig.  98. 

Mr.  Stephens  has  invented  a  mathematical  method  of  forming 
a  mould-boaid,  which,  though  substantially  on  the  plan  of  Mr. 
Jefferson's,  has  some  modifications  which  are  decided  improve- 
ments. Instead  of  using  a  straight  diagonal,  like  Mr.  Jefferson, 
he  uses  the  arc  of  a  circle,  and,  by  lateral  additions  to  his  block, 
he  is  enabled  to  make  such  an  overhang  to  the  wing  of  the  mould- 
board  as  to  make  it  fall  into  its  place  with  certainty,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  give  an  easy  and  gradual  entrance  to  the  breast  of 
the  plow^     We  give  his  method  in  his  own  words: 

"From  a  careful  study  of  the  foregoing  diagrams  (Plates  III 
and  IV),  and  from  a  comparison  of  numerous  implements  and 
their  practical  effects,  together  with  a  consideration  of  the  dynam- 
ical principles  on  wdiich  the  plow  operates,  I  have  been  led  to 
adopt  a  theoretical  form  of  mould-board,  which  seems  to  fulfill 
all  the  conditions  rcfjuired  in  the  investigation,  and  which  is  capa- 
ble, ])y  very  simple   modifications,   of  adaptation  to  the   circuni- 


52  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

stances  of  the  medium  on  which  it  works.  In  the  outset  it  is 
assumed  that  the  soil  is  homogeneous,  and  that  it  possesses  such  a 
degree  of  tenacity  and  elasticity  as  to  yield  to  the  passing  form 
of  the  plow,  and  to  resume,  when  laid  in  the  due  position,  that 
form  which  was  first  impressed  upon  the  slice  by  the  action  of 
iho  share  and  coulter;  the  second  consideration  being  the  cuttino- 
of  a  slice  from  the  solid  land.  In  a  theoretical  view,  this  must 
be  an  operation  through  its  whole  depth  and  breadth;  hence 
the  share  is  conceived  to  be  a  cutting  edge,  which  shall  have  a 
horizontal  breadth  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  slice  that  is  to  be 
raised,  and  that  the  face  or  land  side  of  the  coulter  shall  stand  at 
right  angles  to  this.  Another  consideration  is,  that  the  slice  now 
supposed  to  be  cut  has  to  be  raised  on  one  side  and  turned  over 
through  an  angle  of  135  deg.,  the  turning  over  being  performed 
on  the  lower  ri<>:lit  hand  edofe,  as  on  a  hino^e,  throuo-h  the  first  90 
deg.,  the  remaining  45  deg.  being  performed  on  what  was  at  first 
the  upper  right  hand  edge  (^m,  Fig.  97).  The  slice,  in  going 
through  this  evolution,  has  to  undergo  a  twisting  action  and  be 
again  returned  to  its  original  form  of  a  right  prism.  To  accom- 
plish this  last  process,  it  is  evident  that  a  wed(/e,  tivisted  on  its 
upper  surface,  must  be  the  agent;  and  to  find  the  form  and  dimen- 
sions of  this  wedge  is  solving  the  problem  that  gives  the  surface 
of  the  mould-board  required. 

We  have  seen.  Fig.  97,  that  the  slice,  in  passing  through  the 
first  ninety  degrees,  descrilios  the  quadrant  d  k  with  its  lower 
edge,  and  in  doing  so  we  can  conceive  a  continued  slice  to  form 
the  solid  of  revolution  abed  e.  Fig.  123,  Plate  IV,  which  is 
a  quarter  of  a  cylinder,  as  shown  here  in  isometrical  perspective; 
the  radius  a  b  or  a  c,  being  equal  to  the  1)rcadth  of  the  slice.  We 
have  next  to  consider  the  ano-le  of  elevation  of  the  twisted  wedge; 
and  in  doing  so  we  must  not  only  consider  the  least  resistance, 
but  also  the  most  convenient  lenirth  of  the  wed'»-e.  In  takino;  a 
low  angle,  which  would  present,  of  course,  proportionally  little 
resistance,  it  would  at  the  sam.e  time  yield  a  length  of  mould 
board  that  would  be  highly  inconvenient,  seeing  that  the  generat- 
ing point,  in  any  section  of  the  slice,  must  ultimately  reach  the 
same  height,  whether  by  a  high  or  a  low  angle.  From  experience, 
we  find  that  from  the  point  of  the  share  to  that  point  in  the  plow's 
body  where  the  slice  arrives  at  the  perpendicular  position,  which 
I  have  liamed  the  zero,  that  thirty  inches  foi-m  a  convenient 
length.     The  length  c  d  ()f  the  solid   is  therefore   made   equal  to 


Plate  IV. 

ANALYTICAL.    SECTIONS    OF    MOULD-BOARDS. 

Fig.  119.  TZ''?  J^V ester n  Fifeshire.         Fig.  120. 


Ranso?ne's  F  F. 


ji      c    ~Tr 


Fig.  127. 


The  Nezo  Mai/ld-BnaiYl. 
(Figs.   123-128.) 


Fig.  128. 


History  of  the  Plow.  53 

thirty  inches  or  more,  and  this  being  clividecl  into  ten  equal  parts, 
the  parallels  11,  22,  33,  &c.,  are  to  be  drawn  upon  the  cylindrical 
surface,  and  between  the  points  b  d  &  curve  has  to  be  described 
that  shall  1)0  tlie  line  of  transit  of  the  slice.  After  investigating 
the  application  of  various  curves  to  this  purpose,  I  have  found 
that  the  circular  arc  is  the  only  one  that  can  be  adopted.  It  pre- 
sents the  least  attainable  resistance  in  the  first  staffes  of  the 
ascent,  where  the  force  required  to  raise  the  slice  is  greatest,  and 
in  the  last  stages  where  the  force  of  raising  has  vanished,  leaving 
only  wdiat  is  necessaiy  to  turn  the  slice  over,  there  the  resistance  is 
greatest ;  and,  above  all,  the  circle  being  of  equal  flexure  through- 
out, it  is  in  every  w^ay  best  adapted  to  the  objects  here  required. 
To  determine  the  radius  of  curvature  of  this  arc,  we  must  evolve 
the  cylindrical  surface,  cbde,  and  from  it  construct  the  diagram. 
Fig.  124,  Plate  IV.  Draw  eh  equal  to  c  cZ  of  Fig.  123;  ecZ^qual 
to  the  length  of  the  arc,  cb  or  d  e,  and  at  right  angles  to  eh; 
divide  e  b  into  ten  equal  parts,  and  from  the  points  of  division 
draw  the  ordinates  \f.  2g,  3h,  etc.,  parallel  to  e  d;  from  b  set  off 
ten  inches  for  the  length  of  the  share  along  the  line  b  e,  which 
wall  fall  one  inch  beyond  the  division  7,  and  at  this  distance 
draw  the  dotted  line  parallel  to  7m;  upon  this  set  ofli'tw^o  and  one- 
half  inches,  and  through  the  three  points,  dmb,  describe  an  arc 
of  a  circle,  whose  radius  will  be  found  equal  to  the  circumference 
of  the  cylinder,  of  which  a  b  c,  Fig.  123,  is  a  quadrant.  The 
circular  arc  thus  found  is  to  be  transferred  to  the  cylindrical 
surface  c  b  d  e.  The  transfer  may  be  performed  by  drawing  the 
arc  on  paper,  and  the  paper  then  laid  over  the  cylindrical  surface 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  points,  b  m  d,  shall  be  brought  to  coin- 
cide wdth  the  points,  b  m  d,  of  the  cylindrical  surface;  when  the 
remaining  points/*^  h  i,  or  any  number  more,  may  be  marked  on 
the  cylindrical  quadrant  by  pricking  through  the  paper  with  a 
pointed  instrument  at  short  intervals  along  the  arc;  or  the  lengths 
of  the  ordinates,  If,  2(/,  3h,  of  Fig.  124,  may  be  transferred  to  the 
corresponding  parallels  of  Fig.  123,  when  the  lengths  of  the 
ordinates  will  cut  the  parallels  in  the  points  fgr  h,  etc.  In  either 
case  the  curve  can  now  be  traced  through  the  points  b  p  n  ?7i,  etc., 
on  the  cylindrical  surface.  Through  the  points  b p  «w?,  etc.,  draw 
the  dotted  lines,//',  (/ g',  hh',  parallel  to  cd  or  be,  and  from  the 
centre,  a,  draw  the  radii  of,  ag',  a  It',  etc.;  the  unequal  divi- 
sions of  the  arc,  c  h,  will  thus  show  the  proportion  of  angles  of 
ascent  of  the   slice   along  the   transif   now  found,  b  p  a,  etc.,  foi* 


54  Report  on  Trials  of  Flows. 

each  division  of  the  length,  while  the  degree  of  flexure  in  the 
curve  or  line  of  transit  remains  uniform  by  the  same,  from  any 
one  point  to  any  other  equidistant  points. 

To  convert  the  prism  thus  prepared  and  lined  off"  into  that  of 
the  twisted  wedge,  we  have  only  to  cut  away  that  portion  of  it 
contained  within  the  boundaries  abed  x,  preserving  the  terminal 
edges  ab,  ax  and  dx,  and  the  prism  will  thus  be  resolved  into  a 
form  represented  by  a  joortion,  a  b  d  x  e,  of  Fig.  125,  also  in 
isometrical  perspective.  Of  this  figure,  ab  d x  is  the  true  theo- 
retical surface  of  the  mould-board,  from  the  edge,  a  b,  of  the  share 
to  the  zero  line,  dx;  ab  ex  is  the  sole;  the  curve,  b p  n  m  /,  etc., 
is  the  Ihie  of  transit  of  the  slice,  and  the  triangles,  lyi,  2'(7  2, 
oil  3,  4V4,  etc.,  are  vertical  planes,  supposed  to  cut  the  solid  thus 
reduced  in  the  divisions  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  to  the  height  of  the  line 
of  transit,  as  in  the  analytical  sections  of  the  mould-boards. 

The  surface,  now  completed,  can  only  raise  the  slice  to  the  per- 
pendicular position;  and,  to  complete  the  operation,  we  have  to 
carry  the  twisted  wedge  back  till  it  shall  place  the  slice  at  the 
angle  of  45  deg.  To  do  this  we  have  to  extend  the  original 
prism,  or  suppose  it  to  have  been  at  first  sufiiciently  elongated 
toward  d  d',  Fig.  125,  Plate  IV.,  and  to  superimpose  upon  its  flat 
side  the  portion  d  d'  ux,  or  a  du  of  Fig.  126.  The  part  d  d'  u  x  is 
now  to  be  worked  off  into  a  part  of  a  new  cylindrical  surface, 
whose  radius  is  yd  or  y  u,  Fig.  126,  and  upon  this  surface  the  line 
du,  Fig.  125,  is  to  be  drawn  tangent  to  the  curve  b  d  at  d.  A 
continuation  of  the  divisions  of  three  inches  is  to  be  made  upon 
the  line  d  d\  and  the  parallels  a'  q',  b'  r'  and  u  d'  continued  on 
the  cylindrical  surfaces.  Whatever  portion  of  the  superimposed 
piece,  a  d'  u,  may  be  found  to  fall  within  the  small  arc,  a  t,  Fig. 
126,  is  to  be  cut  away,  forming  a  small  portion  of  an  interior 
cylinder  concentric  to  the  point  y,  which,  being  done,  the  remain- 
ing portions  of  the  superimposed  piece  are  to  be  cut  away  to  the 
(lotted  lines  d  x,  a  y,  b  z,  u  ii'  of  Fig.  125,  or,  what  is  the  same 
thing,  to  the  lines  d  a,  a'  a,  b'  t  and  u  t  of  Fig.  126,  forming  tan- 
gents to  the  curves  at  a  t,  and  which  will  complete  the  surface 
of  the  tAvisted  wedge  through  its  entire  length,  and  to  the  height 
of  the  line  of  transit,  producing  what  I  conceive  to  be  the  tvae 
theoretical  surface  of  the  mould-board. 

Fig.  126,  Plate  IV,  exhibits  distinctly  in  the  quadrants  o  b  d, 
the  inequality  of  the  angles  of  ascent  for  the  slice,  where  the 
radii  a  ]>',  a  n',  a  rii\  k(;.  repi'cscnt  the  ascents  to   the  correspond- 


History  of  the  Plow.  55 

iiio;  divisions  of  leiiijth  iii  the  transit  of  the  slice  throiiofh  the  curve 
h  d  K,  M'hich  represents  the  periphery  of  the  cylindrical  surfaces 
at  the  line  of  transit.  The  parts  of  the  figure  lying  above  that 
line,  represent  those  that  must  be  superimposed  above  the  quad- 
rantal  portion  of  the  cylinder,  to  complete  the  upper  regions  of 
the  mould-board;  tliese  parts  acting  merely  as  a  preventive  against 
the  overfall  of  the  soil  into  the  waste  of  the  plow,  are  of  less 
importance  as  to  form,  than  those  just  described,  but  are  quite 
necessary  in  the  practice  of  plowing.  The  parallelogram  1/  d 
exhibits  the  relation  in  which  the  furrow  slice  stands  to  this  form 
of  mould-board,  when  the  slice  has  been  raised  to  the  perpendi- 
cular, and  y  u  in  its  ultimate  position. 

Althousfh  I  hold  this  to  be  the  true  theoretical  form,  it  is  not 
in  this  state  fit  to  be  employed  as  a  practical  mould-board  ;  but 
the  steps  to  render  it  so  are  very  simple.  The  broad  shovel- 
mouth,  a  6,  Fig.  125,  would  meet  with  obstructions  too  numerous 
to  admit  for  a  moment  of  its  adoption  in  practice  ;  but  we  have 
only  to  remove  the  right  hand  portion  of  the  edge,  a  b,  in  the 
direction  b  q,  making  the  breadth,  q  m,  six  and  one-half  or  seven 
inches  broad ;  that  portion  also  contained  in  T  r  3  is  to  be  cut 
away,  leaving  m  r  about  four  inches  broad  ;  b  q  r  m  will  then 
represent  the  share  ;  the  mould-board  being  thus  of  the  prolonged 
form  in  the  fore  part.  And,  though  this  form  has  no  peculiar 
advantage  over  the  truncated,  in  respect  to  working,  it  is  better 
adapted  to  admit  of  the  body  being  constructed  of  malleable 
iron,  a  practice  which,  though  more  expensive,  is  certainly  the 
most  preferable,  by  reason  of  its  greater  durability,  and  being 
less  liable  to  fracture  through  the  efiect  of  shocks  when  stones  ©r 
other  obstructions  are  encountered. 

Besides  the  removal  of  tliese  parts  of  the  theoretical  mould- 
board,  other  slight  modifications  are  admissible.  When  the  parts 
have  been  cut  away  as  described,  the  edge,  b  q,  of  the  share  will 
be  found  too  thick  for  a  cutting  edge.  If  brought  to  a  proper 
thickness  by  removing  the  parts  bdo%i\  making  the  edge  to  coin- 
cide with  the  curved  surface,  the  share  so  prepared  would  have 
the  character  that  belongs  to  the  cresting  plows.  The  lower  edge 
of  the  mould-board,  from  r  to  2,  would  be  also  rather  high,  and 
would  present  unnecessary  resistance  to  the  lower  side  of  the 
slice  ;  both  parts,  therefore,  require  to  be  reduced.  The  surface 
of  the  feather,  b  q,  is  to  be  sloped  down  till  it  becomes  straight 
between  tlie  points  b  and  q,  q  not  being  more  tlian  one-quarter  of 


56  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

of  an  inch  above  the  plane  of  the  sole,  as  at  the  dotted  lines,  mz, 
in  Fig.  126.  The  lower  edo;e  of  the  mould-board  is  also  to  be 
rounded  off  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  along  the  lower  edge 
from  h  to  o,  Fig.  128.  To  prevent  the  abrasion  of  the  edge  of 
the  slice  in  passing  over  the  mould-board,  it  will  also  be  expedient 
to  make  the  lines  from  d  to  il  in  Fig.  126,  fall  in  from  below  the 
line  of  transit  upward,  as  shown  in  the  dotted  lines  at  d'  a'  h'  «." 

In  order  to  complete  this  sul)ject  for  the  benefit  of  plow-makers, 
we  give  Mr.  Stephens'  method  of  forming  the  pattern  of  a  mould- 
l)oard,  practically,  as  we  have  already  given  them  theoretically. 

The  Mould-board  Pattern. — In  this  operation  the  quadrant  of 
a  cylinder,  upon  which  the  principle  is  founded,  may  or  may  not 
be  prepared.  If  it  is  to  be  employed,  then  the  first  process  is 
exactly  as  before  descril)ed  in  reference  to  the  quadrant,  Fig.  123, 
Plate  IV,  which  must  be  formed  and  lined  as  there  described  ;  but 
the  same  process  may  be  pursued  by  lines  alone,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  solid,  and  in  the  following  manner :  Having 
described  the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  as  a  6  c.  Fig.  123,  of  ten  inches 
radius,  construct  the  diagram.  Fig.  124,  as  before  directed,  the 
entire  length,  e  b,  being  thirty  inches,  divided  into  equal  parts  of 
three  inches  each.  The  arc,  b  d,  is  then  to  be  drawn  through  the 
points  b,  p,  n,  m,  which  points,  instead  of  being  a  transfer,  as 
before  described,  from  the  quadrant,  may  be  drawn  directly  by  a 
beam  compass  touching  the  three  leading  points,  b  m  d,  as  before, 
which  will  intersect  all  the  divisions,  converting  them  into  ordi- 
uates,  If,  2^,  3/?,  etc.,  to  the  curve,  b  d.  The  lengths  of  these 
ordinates  from  the  base  line,  e  b,  are  now  to  be  carefully  trans- 
ferred to  the  quadrant  of  the  circle,  b  d,  of  Fig.  126,  and  set  ofl" 
in  the  circumference  thereof;  thus,  the  point  b,  in  Fig.  126,  cor- 
responds to  the  termination,  b,  of  the  l)ase  line  in  Fig.  124.  The 
first  ordinate,  q  j^,  i'^  to  be  set  ofl:'  on  the  quadrant  from  b  to  j) ,' 
the  second  ordinate,  8;^,  is  set  off"  from  b  to  n  ;  the  third,  lin, 
from  h  to  m,  and  so  on  through  the  entire  quadrant  of  the  circle. 
'Jhe  radii,  a  b,  a  p,  a  n,  etc.,  being  now  drawn,  will  furnish  the 
successive  angles  of  elevation,  with  the  sole  plane  for  each  divisi(ni 
of  the  length  throughout  the  quadrant. 

lu.  applying  these  to  the  mould-board,  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
the  first  three  radii  belong  to  the  share,  if  it  is  a  prolonged  mould- 
board  ;  or  the  first  five,  if  it  l)e  truncated.  The  quadrant,  Fig. 
126,  with  its  radii  being  tluis  completely  drawn  out  at  full  size 
upon   a  b(»:u(I,  produce   Ihe    line   b  a  to  //,  and  on  y,  as  a  centre 


History  of  the  Plow. 


57 


■with  a  radius  of  seven  inches,  describe  the  arc  a  t,  and  concentric 
to  it  the  arc  d  u.  At  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  draw  t  u  a  tangent 
to  the  arc  a  t^  and  the  point  of  intersection  of  this  tangent  with 
the  arc  will  fix  the  extreme  point,  u,  of  the  mould-board  at  the 
height  of  the  line  of  transit,  which  point  will  be  nineteen  inches 
from  the  land  side  plane,  b  g^  and  twelve  inches  above  the  plane 
of  the  sole  or  base  line,  y  b.  From  d  lay  off  divisions  of  equal 
parts  on  the  arc,  d  u,  each  equal  to  four  and  a  half  inches — the 
diagonal  of  a  square  of  three  inches — which  completes  the  lines 
for  the  fabrication  of  the  pattern. 

The  next  step  in  the  operation  is  that  of  building  a  blocJc,  out 
of  which  the  pattern  is  to  be  shaped.  Provide  a  deal-board  of 
three  and  a  half  feet,  or  thereal)outs,  in  length,  with  a  breadth  of 
ten  inches  ;  have  it  dressed  of  a  uniform  thickness,  and  at  least 
one  end  and  edge  straight  and  right  angled,  as  seen  at  a  b  c  in 

Fig.  52,  and  a  b,  fig.  126,  Plate 
IV,  forming  a  basement  to  the 
block,  a  being  the  right  angle, 
and  the  continuation  of  the  board 
being  hid  from  view  under  the 
superimposed  block.  Let  the 
edge,  a  c,  of  the  ])()ard  be  marked 
off  in  equal  divisions  of  three 
inches,  agreeing  exactly  with  those 
of  the  diagram.  Fig.  124,  mark- 
ing the  divisions  with  letters  or 
numerals  corresponding  to  the  radii  of  the  quadrant.  Fig.  12(p, 
the  end,  a  b,  of  the  l)oard  corresponding  to  the  radius,  m,  of  the 
quadrant,  and  to  the  ordinate,  7m,  of  the  diagram.  Provide,  also, 
a  suit-stock  or  bevel  of  the  form  represented  by  d  e  f,  the  stock, 
d  e,  being  a  straight  bar  with  a  head-piece  at  e  fixed  at  right  angles 
to  the  stock,  and  into  this  blade,  a  f,  is  to  be  jointed  in  such  a 
manner  that  when  the  l)lade  and  stock  are  set  parallel  to  each 
other  they  shall  just  receive  the  thickness  of  the  basement  l)oard 
between  them,  the  length  of  the  blade  being  equal  to  the  breadth 
of  the  slice.  Five  or  more  pieces  of  well  seasoned,  clean,  three- 
inch  Memel  or  yellow  pine  deal  are  now  to  be  prepared,  each 
about  thirty  inches  in  length  and  from  six  to  four  inches  in  breadth. 
Set  the  level  to  the  angle,  b  a  m.  Fig.  120,  and,  applying  it  at  the 
end  of  the  board,  as  in  Fig.  52,  it  will  point  out  the  position  in 
which  Ihefii'st  block  nuisf  be  placed  on  llie  board  in  order  that  it 


J^i^.  62. 


58  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

may  fill  the  lines  of  the  pattern.  The  farther  end  of  the  block 
being:  set  in  like  manner  to  face  within  the  lines,  it  is  to  be  firmly 
attached  to  the  board  by  screw  nails.  The  second  block,  k  i,  is 
to  be  joined  to  the  first  by  the  ordinary  method  of  glueing,  being 
set  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first,  to  fill  the  lines  of  the  pattern 
at  both  ends,  and  this  requires  its  being  set  obliquely  to  the  first. 
The  third  block,  I  m,  is  set  in  like  manner,  and  so  on  with  ?i  0 
and^  q.  The  setting  of  the  diflerent  blocks  will  be  much  facili- 
tated by  having  the  ends,  g  i  I  n  p,  cut  ofl'  to  the  plane  of  the 
land  side,  that  is,  to  coincide  vertically  with  the  land  side  edge 
of  the  board,  and  by  keeping  in  view  that  the  terminal  line  lies 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 

The  block  being  thus  prepared,  the  process  of  ivorldng  it  off  is 
plain  and  easily  performed  in  this  way  :  Having  set  the  bevel  at 
the  angle,  b  a  m^  Fig.  126,  which  answers  to  the  end,  a  b,  of  the 
block,  the  bevel  is  applied  as  in  the  figure,  and  the  surplus  wood 
is  cut  away  to  a  short  distance  within  the  end,  a  b,  of  the  board, 
until  the  blade  of  the  bevel  lies  evenly  upon  the  surface,  and  the 
kneed  head-piece  touching  the  edge  of  the  board.  Set  the  bevel 
now  at  the  angle,  b  a  I,  and,  applying  it  at  the  first  division  on 
the  edge  of  the  board,  cut  away  the  surplus  wood  with  a  gouge 
or  other  tool,  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  end  of  the  board  or  at  right 
angles  to  its  edge,  until  the  edge  of  the  blade,  af,  lies  evenly  on 
the  surface,  and  the  head  of  the  stock  touch  the  edge  of  the  board 
as  before.  Repeating  this  operation  at  each  successive  division 
with  the  bevel,  setting  it  to  the  corresponding  angle  up  to  the 
zero  or  vertical  line,  and  we  have  a  series  of  leading  lines  oi- 
draughts,  each  occupying  its  true  position  on  the  surface  of  the 
mould-board  to  the  height  of  the  line  of  transit.  By  continuing 
these  lines,  each  in  the  direction  already  given  it,  until  they 
terminate  in  the  breast  or  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  pattern,  we 
have  a  corresponding  series  of  points  now  determined  in  the 
breast  and  upper  edge;  and  by  removing  the  surplus  wood  still 
remaining  in  the  spaces  between  the  lines,  and  reducing  the 
surface  to  coincide  with  them,  we  have  the  fiin'shed  surface  from 
the  neck  of  the  share  up  to  zero. 

To  complete  the  after  portion  of  tJie  pattern,  we  have  to  forui  ii. 
temporary  bevel  with  a  curved  blade  adapted  to  the  small  arc, 
a  t,  fig.  126,  Plate  IV,  which  blade  is  prolonged  in  a  tangent,  t  n, 
at  the  anHe  of  45  deo;rees.  With  the  o-uidance  of  this  bevel,  its 
stock  being  still  applied  to  the  board  as  in  Fig.  129,  cut  away  all 


History  of  the  Plow.  59 

the  wood  that  occurs  to  interrupt  it  behind  the  zero,  until  it 
applies  everywhere  behind  that  line  without  obstruction.  At  the 
third  division  beyond  the  zero  the  pattern  may  be  cut  off  in  a 
right  vertical,  though  this  is  not  imperative,  as  the  mould-board 
may  be  made  considerably  longer  or  a  little  shorter,  without  at 
all  affecting  its  operation.  At  whatever  distance  in  length  its 
terminal  edge  may  be  fixed,  that  portion  of  the  line  of  transit 
Avhich  lies  between  the  zero  and  the  terminus  must  leave  the 
original  curve,  h  m  d,  Fig.  123,  at  a  tangent,  and  it  will  reach  the 
terminus  as  such,  or  it  will  gradually  fall  into  a  re-entry  curve, 
according  as  the  terminus  is  fixed,  nearer  to  or  farther  from  the 
zero  line,  the  terminus  of  the  line  of  transit  being  always  nine- 
teen inches  distant  from  the  land  side  plane.  That  portion  of  the 
surface  which  now  remains  unfinished  between  the  arcs,  a  t  and 
d  n,  Fig.  126,  is  to  be  worked  off  in  tangents,  applied  vertically 
to  the  arc,  a  t,  and  terminating  in  that  part  of  the  line  of  transit 
that  lies  between  d  and  u.  Such  portions  of  the  interior  cylin- 
drical surface  as  may  have  been  formed  under  the  application  of 
the  temporary  bevel  to  the  arc,  a  i,  are  now  also  to  be  cut  away 
by  a  line  passing  through  the  junction  of  the  tangents,  t  a',  t  b\  t  v, 
Avith  the  cylindrical  arc,  a  t,  forming  a  curved  termination  in  the 
lower  part,  behind,  as  seen  in  Fig.  127,  which  completes  the 
surface  as  proposed.  The  breast  curve  and  the  form  of  the 
npper  edge  will  now  have  assumed  their  proper  curvature,  and 
there  only  remains  to  have  the  whole  pattern  reduced  to  its  due 
thicknesses.  This,  in  the  fore  i)art,  is  usually  al)out  one-half  inch, 
increasing  backward  below  to  about  one  inch,  and  the  whole 
becoming  gradually  thinner  toward  the  top  edge,  where  it  may 
be  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch. 

We  may  now  sum  up  the  modern  history  of  the  plow  in  Scot- 
laud  by  saying  that  all  the  plows  now  in  use  there  are  formed  on 
one  of  the  three  models  which  we  have  described,  viz.  :  Small's, 
Lanarkshire  and  Stephens'.  The  Berwickshire  has  the  lines  of 
the  mould-board  concave,  and  the  western  Fifeshire  very  sharply 
convex,  but  the  differences  are  too  unimportant  to  make  a  minute 
description  necessary. 

We  now  proceed  to  relate  the  more  modern  histoiy  of  the 
plow  in  England.  We  have  already  stated  that  the  Rotherham 
plow  was  the  basis  of  improvement  in  England,  as  well  as  in 
Scotland,  although  its  progress  in  the  latter  kingdom  was  exceed- 
inglv  slow,  for  reasons  which  we  have  previous] v  given. 


60  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

The  wooden  plows  formerly  used  were  very  liable  to  get  out 
of  order  by  warping,  cracking,  etc.,  and  continually  needed 
repairs,  which  were  very  expensive,  and  the  going  backward  and 
forward  to  the  plow-wright,  who  often  was  several  miles  distant, 
was  a  very  serious  tax  upon  the  time  of  the  farmer,  particularly 
in  a  climate  as  variable  as  that  of  Great  Britain,  often  causing 
him  to  lose  the  proper  time  for  seeding.  To  remedy  this  difficulty 
in  some  degree,  plows  were  made  of  wrought  iron,  as  we  have 
seen  in  Brand's  plow.  Fig.  17  ;  but  this  material  being  soft  and 
liable  to  bend,  as  well  as  to  wear  away  rapidly,  it  became  very 
desirable  to  find  a  substitute  which  should  be  more  riijid  and  less 
liable  to  abrasion.  We  accordingly  learn  from  Mr.  J.  Allen  Ran- 
som's valuable  work  upon  farm  implements,  that  his  grandfather, 
Mr.  Robert  Ransom,  of  Ipswich,  who  seems  to  have  been  almost 
as  successful  in  making  improvements  in  agricultural  implements 
as  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  was  in  cotton  machinery,  olHained  a 
patent  for  making  plow  shares  of  cast  iron  in  the  year  1785.  Mr, 
J.  A.  Ransom  very  justly  remarks  that  this  circumstance  is  Avell 
worthy  of  notice,  not  only  as  a  very  important  and  successful  im- 
provement in  the  part  in  question,  but  as  the  means  of  drawing  the 
attention  of  that  individual  and  many  others  to  further  improve- 
ments in  the  plow,  which  were  soon  after  carried  into  effect. 

Another  long  step  in  the  improvement  of  the  plow  was  taken 
by  the  same  gentleman  in  the  year  1803,  Avhen  he  obtained  a 
patent  for  case-hardening  or  chilling  shares.  When  plain  cast 
iron  shares  were  used  a  little  while,  it  was  found  that  the  sharp 
edge  of  the  feather  wore  away  so  that  it,  as  well  as  the  point, 
became  thick  and  l^Uint.  This,  as  can  be  easily  seen,  greatly 
impaired  its  efficiency  ;  it  lost  its  hold  upon  the  ground  ;  the 
weeds  were  passed  over  uncut,  and  a  great  increase  of  power  was 
required  to  operate  it.  Mr.  Ransom  chilled  the  under  side  from 
one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth  in  thickness.  This  part  wears 'inuch 
more  slowly  than  the  upper  part.  The  upper  surface  grinds 
iiway  while  the  lower  part  is  unaffected,  and  heuce  the  edge  is 
always  sharp.  The  land  side  of  the  point  was  likewise  chilled 
in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the  like  results.  When  the  share 
was  finally  worn  out,  the  farmer  himself  could  replace  it  at  a 
trifling  expense,  without  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  a  black- 
smith or  any  other  mechanic,  and  the  shape  of  the  iron  is  always 
uniform,  which  it  could  not  be  when  the  point  and  feather  were 
tempered  b^^  the  blacksuiith,  guided  by  hi.s  eye  alone. 


History  of  the  Plow. 


61 


Fiofs.  53  [a  mul  b)  show  shares  which  have  been  broken,  and 

the  Avhite  lines  at  the  edge  show 

the  chilled  parts. 

This    new    process    proved    of 

such  practical  utility  that  it  was 

soon  extended  to  other  parts.     A 

Suliblk   farmer   invented   for    his 

own    use    a   cast   iron    sole-shoe, 

Avhich  was  also  chilled  at  the  bot-  J^iff-  63.— {a) 

torn.     It  was  provided  with  mortises  to  receive  the  tenons  of  the 

wooden  parts,  and  soon  got  into  general  use.    It  is  represented  at 

Fig.  54.  The  old  difficulty, 
however,  still  remained,  not- 
withstanding these  ffreat  im- 
provements.  So  long  as  any 
portion  of  the  plow  was 
made  by  the  blacksmith, 
changes  would  be  made  in 

the  curves  and  other  parts  upon  which  its  useful  action  depended, 


J^iff.  64-. 


and  there  was  a  consequent  uncertainty  on  the  part  of  purchasers 
whether  the  plows  would  perform  good  work.    As  improvements 


Mff.  55. 


62 


Report  on  Trials  of  Flows. 


were  made  in  moulding  and  casting,  it  became  possible  to  make 
the  whole  plow  of  cast  iron,  so  that  when  a  farmer  once  had  a 
plow  that  exactly  suited  him,  it  could  be  accurately  and  certainly 
reproduced,  and  multiplied  to  any  extent,  at  a  very  small  cost. 
The  next  step,  after  the  adoption  of  the  sole  shoe,  was  to  make 
the  entire  frame  of  iron.  They  were  so  constructed  that  all 
parts — the  handles,  beams  and  shares,  the  sole,  the  mould-board 
and  the  braces — could  be  screwed  upon  with  a  much  greater  firm- 
ness and  much  greater  capability  of  adjustment  than  had  ever 
been  attained  before.  Sketches  of  three  of  these  frames  are 
given  in  Fig.  55. 

The  following  figure  (56)  will  show  how  the  mould-board  and 
share  was  attached  to  the  frame. 


J^/f/.  66. 

The  plow  made  entirely  of  cast  iron  was  introduced  about  the 
year  1800,  and  l)y  1810  was  in  very  common  use.  The  changes 
made  in  the  plow  for  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  were  very 
slight,  and  these  were  mainly  in  the  adaptation  of  the  mould- 
board  to  different  kinds  of  soil,  that  is  to  say,  concave  vertical 
lines  were  adopted  in  loose  sandy  soils  ;  straight  lines  in  medium 
mellow  soils,  and  convex  lines  in  hard  clay  and  other  stift'  soils. 

About  the  year  1840,  Rev.  W.  L.  Eham  developed  the  doctrine 
that  the  transverse  lines  of  the  plo^v  should  be  straight  ;  and  so 
far  as  we  know,  he  was  the  first  one  who  taught  this  rule  in 
Europe,  though  he  had  been  anticipated  many  years  in  this 
country. 

Let  ABC,  Fig.  57,  represent  the  breadth  of  the  furrow.  On 
this  diameter  describe  the  semicircle,  A  4  C,  and  divide  it  into 


Plate  Y. 

PLOWS 

Howard's  Plow, 
r^n-  of  the  full  size. 


ELEVATION. 


Indies  K    n    6    3    o 


ileeb 


Ran  softie's  Flow. 

^'f  of  the  full  size. 


ELEVATION. 


History  of  the  Plow. 


63 


equal  parts,  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  and  draw  the  radii,  B  1,  B2,  B3,  etc., 
draw  the  parallel  lines,  1  1',  2  2',  3  3',  etc.  Draw  the  share, 
dfg  e,  and  the  lines  d  e,  the  neck  of  the  share,  and  3'  6',  makino- 
the  distance  between  them  equal  to  the  length  of  the  mould- 
board.  DraAv  the  diagonals  G'  d,  5'  1',  4'  2'  and  3  3'.  These  lines 
will  represent  the  twist  of  the  mould-board,  the  zero  being  at  h. 


Mr.  Rham  recommends  that  all  plows  should  be  thus  made, 
wath  straight  transverse  lines,  but  that  the  vertical  lines  should 
be  altered  to  suit  different  soils.  So  that,  for  medium  mellow 
soils,  the  vertical  lines  should  be  straight ;  for  stiff  clays,  convex, 
and  for  sandy  and  loose  soils,  concav^e  ;  the  degree  of  convexity 
to  be  proi3ortioned  to  the  stiffness  of  the  clay,  and  the  degree  of 
concavity  to  be  proportioned  to  the  looseness  of  the  sand. 

Fig.  58  represents  these  various  sections.  A  B  represents  the 
section  contiguous  to  the  neck  of  the  share  ;  C  B  in  the  middle 
of  its  length,  and  D  B  at  the  heel.  No.  2  represents  the  convex 
lines  for  stiff  soils,  and  No.  3  the  concave  lines  for  loose  soils. 


The  tendency  of  plow-makers  since  the  publication  of  Mr. 
Rham's  views  has  been  to  approximate  their  mould-boards  to  the 
lines  indicated  by  him. 

We  give  on  Plate  V  figures  accurately  representing  the  plows 
of  Mr.  Howard  and  Mr.  Ransom,  which  may  be  taken  as  repre- 
senting the  utmost  perfection  to  which  the  art  of  plow-making 
has  reached  in  England  up  to  the  present  time. 

As  the  plan  of  Mr.  Rham  has  been  substantially  adopted  by 
some  of  the  most  eminent  plow-makers  in  England,  we  Avill  give 


64 


Report  on  Trials  of  Flows. 


it  ill  fuller  detail.  It  will  be  observed  that  Mr.  Rhaiii's  mould 
board  is  curved  in  the  form  of  the  spiral  thread  of  a  screw,  such 
as  would  be  generated  by  a  line  moved 
uniformly  forward  in  a  direction  at  right 
angles  to  its  length,  while  it  revolved 
uniformly  round  one  of  its  extremities. 
This  surface  is  thus  generated  mechanic- 
ally— Fig.  59.  Take  a  rectangular  paral- 
lelogram, A  B  C  D,  of  the  width  of  nine 
inches,  or  as  wide  as  the  intended  furrow, 
and  of  length  equal  to  four  times  the 
width.  Bisect  B  C  in  E,  and  D  C  in  F  ;  at 
F  raise  a  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
the  rectangle  at  F,  and  make  it  equal  to 
C  E  ;  join  E  G,  and  produce  it  to  K, 
making  K  G=E  G  join  K  D.  Draw  from 
every  point  in  C  D  lines  at  right  angles  to 
C  D,  meeting  the  line  E  K  in  ditferent 
points,  these  lines  will  form  the  required 
surface.  The  line  K  D  will  be  found  in- 
clined 45  degrees  to  the  horizon  at  the 
angle  K  D  H,  wdiich  is  the  inclination  at 
which  the  furrow  slice  is  most  advantage- 
ously laid.  To  those  wdio  are  not  familiar 
wdth  solid  geometiy,  these  lines  may  be 
"^  easily  exhi])ited  by  means  of  a  wure  in- 
J^/^.  59.  sertod  at  E  and  bent  at  a  right  angle  at  K, 

inserting  the  bent  portion  into  the  board,  A  B  C  D,  Fig.  GO,  at 
D,  lying  in  the  direction  E  K,  Figs.  59  and  60.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  G  F  be  equal  to  C  E,  and  H  perpendicular  to  the 
board.  It  is  evident  that,  as  the  plow  moves  on,  a  particle  at  E 
will  slide  along  the  line  E  K,  become  at  G  perpendicular  to  the 
l)lane  of  the  sole,  and  at  K  be  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  that 
A  B 


F'f'O.  60. 


History  of  the  Plow.  65 

line.  If  the  slice  were  a  solid  substance,  this  line,  E  K,  would  l)c 
all  that  is  required  to  turn  it  in  its  proper  position ;  but  as  the 
soil  is  generally  loose,  and  would  crumble  in  pieces,  a  support 
must  be  given  to  it  b}'^  a  surface  at  least  as  wide  as  the  slice. 
This  surface  is  generated  by  drawing  lines  from  different  points 
of  D  C  at  right  angles  to  the  line  and  meeting  the  line  K  E. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AMERICAN  PLOWS. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  PLOW— Continued. 

We  now  turn  to  the  history  of  the  plow  in  this  country. 
Until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  plows  used  were 
most  deplorable  implements,  fabricated  by  the  most  careless  and 
unintelligent  mechanics,  scarcely  any  two  being  made  alike.  We 
cannot  find,  and  we  have  never  seen  or  heard  of,  a  single  plow 
having  been  made  on  the  principle  laid  down  by  Mr.  Jefterson  in 
his  day,  except  those  made  by  himself;  in  fact  the  existence  of 
his  method  was  hardly  known  in  this  country  until  within  quite 
a  recent  period,  although  it  was  well  known  and  much  talked  of 
in  Europe. 

Mr.  A.  B.  Allen,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society  for  1856,  thus  describes  the  primitive 
methods  of  the  plow-makers  in  this  country  in  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century  : 

"  A  winding  tree  was  cut  down,  and  a  mould-board  hewed  from 
it,  with  the  grain  of  the  timber  running  so  nearly  along  its  shape 
as  it  could  well  be  obtained.  On  to  this  mould-board,  to  prevent 
its  wearing  out  too  rapidly,  were  nailed  the  blade  of  an  old  hoe, 
thin  straps  of  iron,  or  worn-out  horse  shoes.  The  land  side  was 
of  w^ood,  its  base  and  sides  shod  with  thin  plates  of  iron.  The 
share  was  of  iron,  with  a  hardened  steel  point.  The  coulter  was 
tolerably  well  made  of  iron,  steel  edged,  and  locked  into  the 
share  nearly  as  it  does  in  the  improved  lock  coulter  plow  of  the 
present  day.  The  beam  was  usually  a  straight  stick.  The  handles, 
like  the  mould-board,  split  from  the  crooked  trunk  of  a  tree,  or 
as  often  cut  from  its  l)ranches  ;  the  crooked  roots  of  the  white 
ash  were  the  most  favorite  timber  for  plow  handles  in  the  northern 
3 


66  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

States,  The  beam  was  set  at  any  pitch  that  fancy  might  dictate, 
with  the  handles  fastened  on  ahnost  at  right  angles  with  it,  thus 
leaving  the  plowman  little  control  over  his  implement,  which  did 
its  work  in  a  very  slow  and  most  imperfect  manner." 

It  is  curious,  as  well  as  humiliating,  to  see  how  little  advance 
had  been  made  in  the  fabrication  of  an  implement  which  lies  con- 
fessedly at  the  root  of  all  human  ciTilization.  As  we  have  seen, 
the  original  plow  was  a  forked  stick,  with  natural  crooks  which 
adapted  it  to  the  purpose  ;  and  after  a  lapse  of  three  thousand 
years,  the  same  idea  as  stated  by  Mr.  Allen  was  still  uppermost 
in  the  minds  of  plow-makers,  the  last  differing  mainly  from  the 
first  in  being  protected  from  wear  l)y  nailing  on  old  hoes,  horse 
shoes,  etc. 

It  is,  however,  instructive  and  interesting  to  observe  that  there 
was,  after  all,  a  certain  blind  instinct  in  the  American  farmers' 
minds  which  led  them  somewhat  in  the  right  direction.  They 
invariably  selected  trees  for  mould-boards  which  had  been  acci- 
dentally twisted  in  their  early  growth,  and  thus,  without  knowing 
or  suspecting  it,  they  were  approximating  to  a  helicordal  curved 
surfiice. 

The  first  American  who  set  himself  to  work  to  improve  the 
plows  in  common  use,  after  Mr.  Jefferson,  was  a  farmer  by  the 
name  of  Newbold,  residing  in  Burlington,  N.  J,,  who  made  the 
first  cast  iron  plow  ever  made  in  America.  He  used  it  successfully 
himself,  but  so  great  was  the  antipathy  to  new-fangled  notions 
that  no  one  would  imitate  his  example,  and  very  few  would  even 
try  his  implement. 

As  this  plow  was  the  first  that  was  made  of  cast  iron  in  this 
country,  and  thus  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the 
implement,  it  is  from  this  circumstance  invested  with  so  much 
interest  that  we  give  his  specification  in  full,  viz,  : 

"  The  subscriber,  Charles  Newbold,  of  Burlingtou  county  and  the  State  of  New 
Jersey,  has  invented  an  improvement  in  the  art  of  plough  making,  as  follows,  viz.: 
The  plough  to  be  (excepting  the  handles  and  beam)  of  solid  cast  iron,  consisting 
of  a  bar,  sheath  and  mould  plate.  The  sheath  serves  a  double  purpose  of  coulter 
and  sheath,  and  the  mould  plate  serves  for  share  and  mould  board,  that  is,  to  cut 
and  turn  the  furrow  ! 

*'  The  forms  to  be  varied,  retaining  the  same  general  principles,  to  meet  the 
various  uses,  as  well  as  inclinations,  of  those  who  use  them. 

"Philadelphia,  17th  June,  1797- 

"CHARLES  NEWBOLD. 

"  Uriah  Tracy,  (  ^'^^^^-'sses  present  at  the  signing." 


History  of  the  Plow.  67 

The  letters  pcateiit  were  signed  by  John  Achims,  President,  and 
Timothy  Pickering,  Secretary  of  State,  and  their  legality  was 
certified  to  by  Charles  Lee,  Attorney  General,  on  the  26th  of 
June,  171)7.     Fig.  61  is  a  correct  delineation  of  this  plow. 


jFigr.  6/. 

Charles  Newbold,  the  inventor  of  the  first  cast  iron  plow  ever 
made  in  America,  was  born  in  the  township  of  Chesterfield,  Bur- 
lington county.  New  Jersey,  about  the  year  1780,  and  in  1804, 
married  Hope,  the  daughter  of  David  Sands,  who  lived  a  few 
miles  south  of  Newbursfh,  N.  Y.  He  was  endowed  with  a  large 
share  of  energy  and  genius,  Avhich  developed  themselves  in  the 
formation  of  so  many  schemes  and  contrivances,  which  succeeded 
one  another  so  rapidly  in  his  teeming  brain,  that  he  had  no  time 
to  carry  any  one  of  them  into  successful  operation.  He  had  a 
grand  scheme  for  founding  three  cities  on  the  Hudson  river,  to  be 
called  Faith,  Hope  and  Charity.  These  were  to  be  the  centres, 
respectively,  of  trades,  manufactures  and  commerce.  They  were 
to  be  connected  together  by  the  best  possible  roads,  as  well  as 
w^ater  communication,  and  from  the  central  city  a  grand  road 
across  the  continent,  similar  to  the  Cumberland  road,  was  to  con- 
nect the  Hudson  river  with  the  Pacific  ocean.  From  this  central 
trunk  road  numerous  lateral  roads  were  to  be  made  to  diveroe 
in  every  direction  throughout  the  entire  continent,  so  that  the 
whole  trade  and  commerce  of  the  country  should  finally  centrc^' 
in  Faith,  Hope  and  Charity.  His  cotemporaries  thought  these 
notions  exceedingly  visionary,  and  some  of  them  thought  they 
afforded  unmistakable  indications  of  insanity  ;  but  a  road  already 
exists  in  an  unbroken  line,  at  this  day,  from  Newburgh  to  the  base 
of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  in  a  few  years  more,  though  Faith, 
Hope  and  Charity  are  yet  unbuilt,  his  grand  idea  of  a  connection 
between  their  sites  and  the  Pacific  ocean,  by  a  railroad  over  the 
whole  route,  with  lateral  communications  over  the  whole  United 


68  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

States,  have  been  fully  realized.  He  who  in  that  early  day.  with 
the  eye  of  faith,  could  discern  this  vast  sj^stem  of  internal 
improvement  as  a  present  reality,  could  have  been  no  common 
man.  Some  time  after  his  marriage  he  removed  to  Cornwall, 
N.  Y.,  where  his  wife  had  formerly  resided,  and  remaiued  there 
until  his  death. 

His  plow,  consisting  of  share,  land  side,  sheath  and  mould- 
board,  was  all  cast  in  one  piece  by  Benjamin  Jones,  Esq.,  at  the 
Hanover  furnace,  Burlington  county,  some  time  lietween  the  years 
1790  and  1796.  This  plow  was  put  into  operation  in  a  young 
orchard  belonging  to  Gen.  John  Black  ;  the  i^lowman  soon  after- 
wards broke  the  point,  and  it  was  never  used  afterwards.  It  is 
still  in  existence,  and  is  the  property  of  John  Black,  Esq.  (a  son 
of  Gen.  Black),  of  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.* 

Mr.  Newbold,  although  he  had  made  a  most  valuable  improve- 
ment, was  unsuccessful  in  persuading  the  farmers  of  his  region  to 
adopt  it.  He  spent  upwards  of  $30,000  in  perfecting  and  intro- 
ducing his  plow,  and  then  abandoned  the  business  in  despair,  as 
the  farmers  had  in  some  way  imbibed  the  strange  notion  that  the 
cast  iron  plow  poisoned  the  land,  injured  its  fertility,  and  pro- 
moted the  growth  of  weeds.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  his 
operations  he  substituted  a  wrought  iron  share  for  the  cast  iron,  but 
it  did  not  overcome  the  prejudices  which  had  been  engendered, 
and  the  farmers  still  adhered  to  the  miserable  bull  plows  that  were 
in  vogue,  which  took  much  more  power  and  did  not  work  as  well. 

There  are  traces  of  the  use  of  a  cast  iron  share  still  earlier  than 
Mr.  Newbold's.  In  the  year  1794,  it  appears  by  the  first  volume 
of  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricul- 
ture, Arts  and  Manufactures,  that  "  Col.  John  Smith  produced 
the  model  of  a  plow  share,  according  to  which  it  was  proposed  to 
have  that  utensil  made  of  cast  iron,  in  order  to  save  expense  in 
husbandry,  and  come  cheaper  to  farmers  than  those  in  common 
use,  forged  from  lorought  iron  ;  and  Mr.  Smith  and  Judge  Hobart 
were  appointed  to  get  several  cast  for  trial."  At  the  next  meet- 
ing, Col.  Smith  reported  that  the  cast  iron  share  exceeded  his 
most  sanguine  expectations.  "It  is  cast  in  the  form  of  a  Dutch 
share  (probably  the  Rotherham  share),  after  the  best  model  that 
could  be  procured  by  the  society,  with  this  exception,  that  the 
edge  is  not  complete,  and  not  so  wide  by  about  three  inches  as 
it  will  be  when  finished  with  the  false   edg-e  which  is  made  of 

*  This  original  plow  has  been  presented  by  Mr.  Black  to  the  State  Agiicultural  Society 
of  New  York,  for  its  Museum,  in  Albany. 


History  of  the  Plow.  69 

■wrought  iron  or  steel  and  fastened  on  with  rivets."  He  informs 
the  society  that  they  may  be  had,  either  with  or  without  the  false 
edge,  of  Mr.  Peter  T.  Curtenius,  in  New  York.  The  Col.  Smith 
above  named  was  afterward  Gen.  Smith,  and  was  the  proprietor 
of  St.  George's  manor  in  the  county  of  Suffolk.  He  was  an 
eminent  and  extensive  ftirmer,  and  was  one  of  the  original  corpo- 
rators of  the  old  Agricultural  Society  of  New  York. 

The  next  plow  patented  was  by  John  Denver,  June  12th,  1804. 
He  was  a  Marylander,  and  some  old  people  in  that  State  still 
remember  such  a  plow,  but  we  can  obtain  little  definite  informa- 
tion respecting  it ;  it  probably  never  came  into  very  general  use. 
There  is  neither  specification,  drawing  or  model  of  it  now  in  the 
Patent  Office. 

The  next  patent  was  granted  to  Hezekiah  Harris,  of  Kentucky, 
February  24th,  1804.  We  can  find  no  memorial  of  this  plow 
either  in  the  Patent  Office  or  elsewhere. 

A  patent  was  granted  to  David  Peacock,  of  New  Jersey,  April 
1st,  1807.  There  is  no  record  of  this  now  in  the  Patent  Office 
at  Washington,  all  the  old  records  having  been  destroyed  by  fire  ; 
but  we  learn  on  very  good  authority  that  it  was  made  of  cast  iron, 
and  resembled  Newbold's  plow,  except  that  it  was  cast  in  three 
separate  pieces,  while  Newbold's  was  cast  in  a  single  piece. 
Newbold  sued  him  for  an  infringement,  but  it  was  finally  settled 
by  the  payment  to  Newbold  of  $1,500.  He  was  very  much  dis- 
satisfied with  his  agents,  who  made  this  arrangement,  and  always 
thought  that  he  had  been  betrayed  by  them.  David  Peacock 
took  out  another  patent  in  1822.  There  were  some  improvements 
made  in  other  parts  of  the  plow,  but  the  chief  feature  was  the 
famous  lock  coulter  which  it  is  believed  he  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce (Fig.  90).  The  plows  made  by  Peacock  were  very  exten- 
sively used  throughout  the  country,  and  many  of  them  were  to 
be  found  in  use  on  farms  in  this  State  and  in  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania  as  late  as  the  year  1850. 

The  earliest  recocrnition  of  the  importance  of  straight  tran.s- 
verse  lines  in  the  mould-board  that  we  have  met  with  is  contained 
in  the  following  letter  from  the  celebrated  Timothy  Pickering,  who 
was  a  most  excellent  farmer,  as  well  as  an  eminent  statesman.  It 
was  addressed  to  Dr.  Alex.  Coventry,  and  is  dated  Salem,  June 
3d,  1820: 

"  M}^  public  employments  in  the  war  of  our  Eevolution  having 
caiisod  me  to  take  my  family  to  Philadelphia,  I  remained  there 


70  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

after  its  termination.  During  four  years  I  lived  in  the  country, 
and  paid  some  attention  to  husbandry.  One  day  when  learning 
to  hold  a  plow  (a  good  Pennsylvania  plow  of  that  day),  the  soil, 
rich  and  moist  enough  to  be  adhesive,  I  observed  that  the  earth 
filled  the  holloAv  of  the  mould-board,  and  assumed  a  straight  lino 
from  its  fore  end,  near  the  point  of  the  share,  to  its  upper  pro- 
jecting hind  corner,  and  that  it  mainlained  that  same  straight 
line.  It  then  struck  me  that  this  straight  line  should  exist  in 
every  mould-board  and  direct  its  curvature.  Four  or  five  years 
afterwards  I  returned  to  Philadelphia,  having*  been  again  called 
to  public  life.  And,  at  a  subsequent  period,  visiting  Mr. Bordle}^ 
the  Vice  President  of  the  Philadelphia  Agricultural  Society  (of 
which  I  was  a  member,  and  its  secretary  at  its  first  formation  in 
1785),  he  handed  me  a  small  model  of  a  mould-board  which  Mr. 
Jefferson  had  left  with  him.  At  the  first  glance  I  saw  the  straight 
line  before  mentioned  governed  its  form,  and  asking  Mr.  Bordley's 
daughter,  then  at  her  needle,  for  a  piece  of  thread,  I  stretched  it 
tVinii  the  left  lower  fore  part  of  the  mould-board  to  its  right 
upper  overhanging  fore  corner,  and  found  it  in  a  .straight  line, 
touchino;  the  mould-board  in  its  whole  leno-th.  'Here,'  said  I  to 
Mr.  Bordley,  '  is  the  principle  on  which  this  mould-board  is 
formed.'"  *  *  *  *  "  I  have  given  this  detail  to  explain  the 
opinion  I  now  express,  tJiat  the  straight  line  therein  described  i,s 
essential  to  the  form  of  the  mould-board  of  the  least  resistance. 
Around  this  line  the  curvature  is  to  be  formed  ;  and  placing  the 
lower  edge  or  bottom  of  the  mould-board  on  a  level  floor,  if 
another  straight  line  be  laid  transversely^  on  the  fore  end  or  point 
of  the  mould-board,  and  moved  regularly  backward  on  its  face 
in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  it  will  touch  the  mould- 
board  in  its  whole  breadth,  throughout  its  whole  length,  provided 
the  curvature  be  correct.  In  a  word,  the  curvature  will  be  a 
])ortion  of  a  spiral  screw.  Take  a  large  screw  auger  for  an  exem- 
j)lification.  No  earth  can  be  left  on  such  a  mould-board  ;  for 
every  succeeding  portion  of  earth  which  the  plow  raises  pushes 
off  that  which  is  on  the  transverse  straight  line  behind  it :  and 
the  face  of  the  mould-board  consists — is  made  up  (mathemat- 
ically speaking) — of  an  infinite  number  of  such  transverse  straight 
lines. 

"  One  more  observation:  The  essential  straight  line  indicates  the 
slope  of  the  wedge  on  which  the  furrow  slice  rises  until  it  reaches 
that  ])oint  in  the  line  at  wliicli  the  transverse  line  is  perpendicu- 


History  of  the  Plow. 


71 


lar,  after  passing  which  the  gratlual  overhanging  of  the  mould- 
board  pushes  the  furrow  slice  (supposing  it  to  rest  on  its  lower 
edge  as  a  hinge)  beyond  the  centre  of  gravity,  and  at  length 
completely  snl)verts  it;  or,  in  farmers'  language,  lays  it  upon  its 
l)ack.  The  angle  which  tJie  .stright  line  should  form  with  the  sole 
of  the  plow  is  another  material  point  to  be  discovered  b}^  expei'i- 
ments. 

"  In  adjusting  this  mould-l)oard  to  the  plow,  another  point  is 
to  be  determined — the  extent  of  the  angle  which  the  essential 
stright  line  should  form  with  the  bar  of  the  share  or  land  side 
of  the  plow.  The  smaller  this  angle  the  less  the  resistance  at 
entering  the  earth;  but  if  the  angle  were  to  be  very  small,,  then 
the  plow  must  have  great  length  to  obtain  a  proper  breadth  of 
furrow;  and  such  great  length  would  proportionally  increase  the 
quantity  of  friction.  Hence  the  conclusion,  that  keeping  both 
these  points  in  view,  repeated  experiments  must  decide  where 
lies  the  just  medium  of  breadth,  of  angle,  and  length  of  mould- 
board." 

The  lines  running  from  the  front  of  the  plow  towards  the  back 
are  now  usually  transverse  lines,  but  Mr.  Pickering  evidently 
applies  this  term  to  the  lines  running  from  the  sole  to  the  top  of 
the  plow. 

The  next  patent  granted  was  to  Hezekiah  Harris,  of  Kentucky, 


J^fff.  62. 
on  the  24th  of  February,  1808,  of  which  no  record  remains  in  the 
patent  office,  and  of  which  we  can  learn  nothing  whatever.     The 

next  M-;is  to  Kicliard   B.  Chonowotli,  of  Maryland,  a  drawing  of 


72  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

which  is  given  in  Fig.  62,  and  the  following  extract  from  the 
specification  will  give  the  idea  of  the  inventor: 

"There  is  attached  to  the  upper  side  of  the  mould-board, 
which  is  of  cast  iron,  a  share  which  in  its  shape  differs  from  any 
other  now  in  practice,  it  being  fastened  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
mould-board  with  screws,  the  point  doubling  over,  but  running 
even  with  the  land  side,  which  is  also  made  of  cast  iron,  and 
leaving  a  hollow  under  the  mould-board  so  that  small  stones  may 
pass  without  interruption.  The  share  is  made  of  wrought  iron 
with  a  steel  edge  weighing  from  four  to  eight  pounds." 

John  Klay,  of  Maryland,  received  a  patent  for  a  plow  dated 
January  11th,  1812. 

Roswell  Tousley,  of  Scipio,  New  York,  received  a  plow  patent 
on  the  same  day;  this  man  was  subsequently  a  partner  of  Jethro 
Woods. 

John  Seltz,  of  Pennsylvania,  received  one  February  8th,  1813. 

Matthew  Patrick,  of  New  York,  had  a  plow  patented  on  the 
2d  day  of  January,  1813. 

Horace  Pease,  of  Scipio,  New  York,  received  a  patent  for  a 
plow  August  28th,  1813. 

Jethro  Wood,  of  Scipio,  New  York,  had  a  patent  for  a  plow 
granted  July  1st,  1814.  He  did  not  attach  much  value  to  this 
patent,  and  never  attempted  to  introduce  it  extensively,  as  we  arc 
informed  by  his  daughters. 

The  next  patents  granted  for  plows  were  to  John  Swan,  of 
Scipio,  New  York,  on  the  5th  day  of  July,  1814;  to  J.  Morgan 
and  J.  B.  Harris,  October  11th,  1814;  to  David  Peacock,  of  New 
Jersey,  May  29th,  1817. 

Gideon  Davis,  of  Maryland,  received  a  patent  for  a  plow  May 
26th,  1818.  This  plow  is  interesting,  as  it  is  the  first  attempt 
since  Jefi'erson's  da}'^  to  construct  the  mould-board  on  mathemati- 
cal principles.  The  drawings  will  be  found  on  Plate  VI,  and  the 
following  specification  will  show  the  ideas  which  the  inventor 
sought  to  embody: 

"The  great  desideratum  to  be  attained  in  the  box  share  or 
shallow  plow,  is  that  it  be  so  shaped  and  constructed  as  to  detach 
the  furrow  slice  from  the  solid  ground,  raise  it  up  and  turn  it 
over,  in  the  neatest  and  most  uniform  and  effectual  manner,  with 
the  least  possible  labor,  both  to  the  plowman  and  the  team,  com- 
bining at  the  same  time  the  advantages  of  being  simple  in  its 
structure,  strong  and  durable,  easy  to  keep  in  repair,  and  cheap. 


Plate  VI. 

DAVIS'    PLOWS. 


History  of  the  Plow.  73 

The  mode  of  using,  it  is  desirable,  should  be  such  as  will  cause  the 
least  trouble  and  inconvenience  to  the  plowman. 

"With  a  view  to  combine  as  far  as  practicable  these  various 
objects,  I  begin  by  making  the  mould-board,  land  side,  and  stand- 
ard (or  width  for  the  beam  to  rest  on),  all  of  cast  iron,  and  in  a 
solid  piece;  this  is  done  in  the  manner  that  Charles  Newbold,  of 
New  Jersey,  made  his  improved  plow,  patented  in  the  year  1797, 
but  with  several  alterations  and  improvements  hereinafter  par- 
ticularly specified. 

"  First — Of  the  shape  of  the  moulding  part,  or  what  is  com 
monly  called  the  face  of  the  mould-board,  the  general  principle 
heretofore  concurred  in  by  all  scientific  men  who  have  turned 
their  attention  to  this  subject,  is  that  as  the  furrow  slice  is  de- 
tached from  the  solid  ground,  at  a  straight  line,  parallel  to  the 
surface,  at  such  depth  as  may  be  required,  that  it  should  be 
raised  up  and  turned  over,  so  as  to  retain,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
same  flat  shape.  In  order  to  accommodate  the  face  of  the  mould- 
board  to  this  idea  of  raising  the  furrow  slice  up  and  turning  it 
over,  it  has  been  so  constructed  as  to  form  straight  lines  length- 
wise, either  horizontal  or  a  little  inclined,  and  also  to  correspond 
with  another  set  of  straight  lines  at  right  angles  with  the  land 
side,  or  nearly  so,  commencing  at  the  point  touching  the  edge 
of  the  share  and  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board.  These  last 
mentioned  straight  lines,  as  they  recede  from  the  point  of  the 
commencement,  gradually  change  from  a  horizontal  to  a  perpen- 
dicular direction,  and  even  pass  beyond  the  perpendicular  so  far 
as  to  give  the  proper  over-jet  behind.  It  has  been  thought  that 
mould-boards  so  constructed  would  fit  and  embrace  every  part  of 
the  furrow  slice  in  the  operation  of  turning  it  over,  not  observing 
that  the  furrow  slice  must  necessarily  assume  a  convex  form  on 
the  under  side  during  the  operation  by  which  it  is  raised  up  and 
turned  over. 

"  The  truth  is,  however,  that  in  raising  and  turning  over  the 
furrow  slice  it  always  acquires  a  convex  form  on  the  under  side, 
or  else  it  is  broken  into  pieces  and  thrown  over;  as  might  there- 
fore be  anticipated,  it  will  be  found  that  all  those  mould-boards 
which  are  constructed  on  this  principle  wear  through,  in  the 
operation  of  plowing,  about  midway,  whilst  the  upper  and  lower 
edges  are  scarcely  rubbed.  It  also  necessarily  results  that  plows 
of  this  description  work  hard  and  are  of  heavy  draught,  because 
the  mould-l)oard  not  being  adapted  to  the  convex  form  which  the 


74  Bepobt  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

furrow  slice  is  disposed  to  assume,  lifts  the  furrow  slice  at  a  sin- 
gle point,  and  that  in  the  middle  instead  of  being  equally  applied 
throughout  the  entire  operation. 

"In  order  to  meet  and  remedy  the  inconveniences  arising  from 
this  form  of  structure,  I  form  my  mould-board  into  a  different 
shape,  and  instead  of  working  the  moulding  part  or  face  of  the 
mould-board  to  straight  lines,  my  improvement  is  to  work  it  to 
circular  or  sphere  lines.  By  repeated  experiments  I  have  ascer- 
tained that  in  one  direction,  viz.:  from  a,  Plate  VI,  fig.  4,  inclin- 
ing to  the  back  part,  d,  the  circle  or  segment  of  the  mould-board, 
to  which  the  mould-board  is  wrought,  should  have  about  three 
times  the  radius  of  the  smaller  segments  represented  b^^  the  lines 
lettered  c  c,  &c.,  the  former  being  thirty-six  inches,  the  latter 
twelve  inches.  In  order  then  to  shape  the  moulding  part,  or  the 
face  of  the  mould-board,  having  obtained  a  suitable  block,  I  begin 
by  laying  off  the  bottom  (Fig.  3),  and  (Fig.  4)  by  circular  or 
spheric  lines  at  a  a  a.  If  I  intend  to  construct  a  plow  of  a 
proper  size  to  cut  and  turn  a  twelve  inch  furrow,  I  strike  this 
segment  of  a  circle  of  thirty-six  inches  radius  (Fig.  1),  and  at 
twenty-four  inches  back  from  the  point  c  at  right  angles  with  the 
land  side  and  twelve  inches  from  the  land  side;  the  circle  will 
intersect  the  angle  line;  this  circle  is  extended  out  from  the  land 
side;  I  then  work  the  block  to  fit  the  same  segment,  inclined 
from  a  (Fig.  4)  at  the  point  of  the  share,  to  a  at  a  perpendicular 
raised  twelve  inches  from  the  horizon,  with  the  circle  extended 
in  toward  the  land  side;  then  having  wrought  to  the  shape  of 
these  two  lines,  I  apply  the  circular  part  of  the  smaller  segment 
(Fig.  2)  and  work  the  face  of  the  mould-board,  until  that  segment 
will  have  an  equal  bearing  on  all  parts,  corresponding  with  the 
cross  lines  c  c  c,  &c.,  which  if  produced  would  all  terminate  in 
a  point  at  d,  Avhich  is  about  thirty-six  inches  from  the  perpendic- 
ular, where  the  line  a  a  crosses  the  line  d  b;  this  being  worked 
off  uniformly,  forms  a  section  of  an  oxydromic  or  spiral  curve, 
and  when  applied  to  practice  is  found  to  fit  or  embrace  every 
part  of  the  furrow  slice  far  more  than  any  other  shaped  plow. 
The  plow  may  be  made  larger  or  smaller,  suited  to  deep  or  shal- 
low plowing,  by  enlarging  or  diminishing  the  radii  of  the  seg- 
ments which  it  is  wrought  by.  Believing  that  this  mode  of 
shaping  the  moulding  part  or  face  of  the  mould-board  is  an  origi- 
nal invention  of  my  own,  not  heretofore  known  or  used,  and  that 
it  is  a  most  important  improvement  in  the  shape  of  the  plow,  I 


History  of  the  Plow.  lb 

chiini  the  exclusive  privilege  of  making,  using  and  vending  the 
same. 

"  Second — Shape  of  the  throat  and  hind  part  of  the  mould- 
board:  The  shape  of  the  throat  is  exhibited  in  the  accompanying 
drawing,  fig.  4,  fig.  5,  Plate  VI.  I  construct  this  part  of  my 
plow  with  a  gentle  curve  from  the  top  of  the  share  entirely  up 
to  the  beam,  which,  at  a  suitable  height  for  a  plow  designed  to 
turn  a  furrow  slice  of  about  twelve  inches  in  width,  say  about 
sixteen  inches,  will  incline  forward  as  it  comes  up  to  the  beam  to 
form  a  birth  for  it  to  rest  on  in  an  easy  circular  form.  I  dress  it 
ofl'  also  round  as  it  ascends  from  the  share,  making  it  broader 
and  broader  as  it  approaches  the  beam.  The  object  of  this 
peculiar  shape  is  to  prevent  brambles,  long  grass,  &c.,  from  lap- 
ping so  short  as  they  would  do  if  the  front  of  the  throat  were 
sharp,  and  the  inclination  forward  at  the  upper  part  of  the  throat 
forms  a  curve  with  the  under  side  of  the  beam,  so  as  to  prevent 
anything  in  plowing  to  be  jammed  under  the  beam — the  pres- 
sure below  naturally  forces  the  incumbrance  up  and  forward, 
when  it  faces  over  and  the  plow  cleans  itself.  This  I  consider 
an  improvement  of  great  value  in  plowing  in  clover,  long  manure 
and  the  like.  The  head  part  of  the  mould-board.  Figs.  3  and  4, 
y*,  I  dress  off  in  a  gentle  curve  from  the  end  or  wing  of  the  sliare 
up  to  the  hind  corner  of  the  mould-board.  This  shape  I  have 
ascertained  to  answer  every  purpose  in  turning  over  the  furrow 
slice,  and  as  it  does  not  come  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  farrow 
the  plow  works  with  much  less  friction,  is  lighter,  cheaper  and 
handsomer. 

"  Believing  these  shapes  for  the  throat  or  breast,  and  the  hind 
part  of  the  mould-board  not  to  have  been  known  or  practiced 
before  my  application  of  it,  and  that  they  constitute  valuable 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  the  plow,  I  claim  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  use  and  dispose  of  them. 

"  Third — The  structure  of  the  land  side  with  the  mould-board 
and  standard,  or  the  fore  and  top  part  of  the  mould-board: 
Charles  Newbold  made  his  mould-board,  land  side  and  stand- 
ard of  one  piece,  and  of  cast  iron.  In  connecting  his  land  side 
to  the  mould-board,  he  made  it  nearly  square  and  stout  to  give  it 
strength,  I  make  my  land  side  thin  and  broad,  g,  Fig.  5,  which 
gives  more  strength  vertically,  without  so  much  weight.  This 
form  also  makes  it  a  guard,  which  prevents  sods,  dirt,  &c.,  from 
working  in   and  clogging  tluit  part  of  the  plow.     In  order  then 


76  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

to  give  additional  strength  to  the  land  side  sidewise,  and  to  con- 
nect it  at  a  proper  angle  with  the  mould-board,  I  make  a  rib,  //, 
Fig.  3,  on  the  land  side,  about  midway  between  the  top  and  bot- 
tom, say  about  two  and  a  half  inches  from  the  bottom.  This  rib 
is  made  broad  where  it  joins  the  mould-board  at  /,  and  tapers  as 
it  goes  back  to  the  birth  for  the  handle  to  fasten  on,  where  it  ter- 
minates at  i,  Fig.  3,  where  I  make  a  projection  or  jog,  which 
cannot  be  represented  in  the  drawing,  to  raise  about  half  an  inch 
for  the  end  of  the  handle  to  rest  against.  This  rest,  or  jog,  sus- 
tains the  pressure  of  the  handle  endwise,  so  that  the  screw  bolt 
is  only  required  to  confine  it  to  the  side.  C.  Newbold  made  the 
standard  of  his  plow  to  pass  up  through  a  mortise  in  the  beam; 
mine  extends  only  up  to  the  beam;  the  beam  is  fastened  on  it 
with  a  strong  iron  scrcAV  bolt,  which  may  be  made  either  to  pass 
up  through  the  top  of  the  standard  in  the  front  part  of  it  and 
through  the  beam  vertically,  j,  Fig.  5,  or  to  pass  through  the  beam 
in  an  inclined  direction,  and  containing  the  same  inclination 
through  the  top  of  the  standard,  having  on  the  inside  a  birth  for 
the  nut  to  work  on,  J,  Fig.  4.  There  are  plows  in  which  the 
beam  is  fastened  on  the  top  of  the  standard  with  two  bolts.  The 
improvement  which  I  claim  to  have  invented  consists,  therefore, 
only  in  these  particular  modes  of  connection.  The  advantage  of 
it  consists  in  this — that  the  fastenings  being  made  by  a  single 
bolt  upon  which  the  beam  can  turn,  it  enables  me  to  adjust  the 
landing  of  the  plow  by  a  simple  operation  in  altering  the  position 
of  the  end  of  the  beam,  where  it  is  united  to  the  handle.  This 
will  be  more  particularly  described  when  I  speak  of  the  stocking 
of  the  plow. 

"There  have  been,  also,  land  sides  heretofore  constructed  which 
were  made  thin  and  broad,  but  supported  in  a  difterent  manner. 
My  improvement,  therefore,  consists  only  in  the  mode  of  making 
the  rib,  the  projection  or  jog  in  the  inside  of  the  land  side,  the 
form  of  the  top  of  the  standard  or  the  fore  and  top  part  of  the 
mould-board,  which,  being  made  to  extend  forward  under  the 
beam,  equalizes  the  bearing  of  the  beam.  Thus  a  smaller  piece 
of  wood  will  be  more  sufiicient  to  form  a  beam  than  if  the  fasten- 
ings to  the  handle  and  standard  are  brought  nearer  to  each  other. 

"  Fourth — The  shoe:  Charles  Newbold  made  a  bar  of  wrought 
iron  which  he  caused  to  extend  back  from  the  share  to  the  end  of 
the  land  side,  below  it,  and  fastened  to  it  with  a  sci'cw  bolt  pass- 
ing lip  through  the  shoe  and  land  si(l(>. 


History  of  the  Plow.  77 

"  Stepliens,  of  New  York,  applied  his  shoe  on  the  bottom  of  the 
kind  side  of  the  plow,  and  fastened  with  a  small  screw  bolt  pass- 
ing through  both.  Shoes  constructed  in  this  manner  will  only 
answer  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  bottom  of  the  land  side. 
The  side,  however,  is  equally  exposed,  and  in  time  will  wear 
entirely  oft".  To  obviate  this  inconvenience,  I  make  a  groove  or 
countersink  in  the  side  and  lower  edge  of  the  land  side  of  my 
plow,  which  forms  a  birth  for  the  shoe,  and  admits  of  the  thick- 
ness, without  any  inconvenience,  I  make  from  its  projecting  out, 
E  R,  Fiirs.  3  and  5  :  the  shoe  extends  round  under  the  bottom  of 
the  land  side  and  fastens  on  with  one  or  more  screw  bolts. 

"  The  improvement  consists  in  so  constructing  and  applying  the 
shoe  that  it  protects  both  the  sides  and  the  bottom  of  the  land 
side.     It  may  be  made  of  wrought  or  cast  iron,  or  steel. 

"  Fifth — New  mode  of  making,  applying  and  using  the  share 
of  the  plow,  whether  formed  of  wrought  or  cast  iron:  If  I  apply 
the  wrought  iron  share,  I  make  it  in  the  usual  way  by  weld- 
ing the  wing  on  the  land  side  (see  Fig.  6),  and  fasten  it  to 
the  cast  iron  part  of  the  land  side  with  a  small  screw  bolt,  n, 
Fig.  5.  Then  I  fasten  it  to  the  mould-board  by  means  of  a  pro- 
jection made  on  the  front  and  lower  part  of  the  mould-board, 
with  an  inclination  forward,  forming  a  dovetail  or  hook  which  I 
extend  through  the  share.  (See  o,  Fig.  6.)  This  mode  will  hold 
on  the  share  very  firmly,  but  as  it  is  liable,  being  made  of  cast 
iron,  to  break  off,  in  order  to  obviate  this  danger,  I  fasten  the 
share  to  the  mould-board  with  a  strong  screw  bolt,  having  the 
head  made  to  fit  a  tapering  hole  made  in  the  mould-board,  and 
passing  down  through  the  wing  of  the  share, ^j.  Fig.  6,  and  drawn 
up  tight  with  a  screw  nut.  If  it  be  a  right-handed  plow,  this 
should  be  a  left-handed  screw,  and  if  a  left-hand  plow,  then  a 
riffht-handed  screw.  This  is  somewhat  the  manner  in  which 
David  Peacock,  of  New  Jersey,  fastened  the  share  on  his  plow, 
patented  in  the  year  1807,  but  with  this  difference:  he  put  tvv^o 
screw  bolts  and  a  false  coulter  through  the  wing  of  his  share  ; 
therefore  made  it  stationary,  and  without  its  being  made  fast  to 
the  cast  iron  part  of  the  land  side  at  all.  But,  in  my  mode  of 
fastening  the  share  on,  by  putting  a  piece  of  wood  or  leather 
between  the  wrought  and  cast  iron  land  sides  at  n,  Fig.  5,  the 
point  of  the  share  may  be  somewhat  adjusted,  and  the  bar  always 
regulated  to  suit  the  shoe  of  the  plow.  The  point  and  edge  of 
the  share  is  likewise  of  a  different  shape  from  any  that  have  here- 


78  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

tofore  been  made  to  my  knowledge.  Having  remarked  that  the 
point  of  the  share  is  always  disposed  to  wear  round,  I  make  the 
point  round  at  first.  I  also  make  it  about  twice  as  broad  as  usual, 
and  of  course  much  thinner.  The  edge  of  the  share  is  likewise 
made  rather  concave  or  hollow,  this  being  the  shape  to  which  it 
naturally  wears.  In  consequence  of  this  they  wear  much  more 
uniformly,  will  last  longer  and  be  less  expensive. 

"It  is  also  a  fact  that  the  broad  share  or  coulter  point  Avill 
enter  or  strike  into  the  ground  much  better  than  those  of  the 
ordinary  construction,  and,  being  much  thinner,  will  retain  their 
edge  and  work  much  longer  without  requiring  repair. 

"  In  using  the  wrought  iron  share,  the  point  or  fore  and  lower 
part  of  the  mould-board,  especially  if  the  point  of  the  share  is 
suffered  to  wear  off  very  short,  is  liable  to  wear  away.  To  obviate 
this,  I  make  a  plate  of  wrought  iron  of  suitable  thickness,  say 
one-fourth  of  an  inch.  Fig.  7,  and  shape  it  to  fit,  or  nearly  fit,  on 
the  front  and  lower  part  of  the  mould-board,  and  fasten  it  on  with 
the  head  of  the  main  screw  bolt,  with  which  the  share  is  fastened 
on,  taking  care  to  fit  the  lower  edge  down  snug  to  the  top  of  the 
share.  This  plate  may  be  put  on  when  needed,  and  renewed  as 
required. 

"  If  I  apply  a  cast  iron  share,  I  make  a  birth  or  countersink  on 
tlie  lower  and  front  part  of  the  mould-board  (see  q,  Fig.  4,  and  i\ 
Fig.  3),  on  Avhich  I  put  my  cast  iron  share,  in  the  manner  in  which 
Richard  B.  Chenowith,  of  Baltimore,  fitted  the  share  on  his  plow, 
patented  in  the  year  1808,  but  with  the  following  alterations  and 
improvements:  He  employed  two  small  screw  bolts  to  fasten  his 
share  on  ;  and  to  enable  him  to  set  the  edge  of  the  share  deeper 
as  it  wore  off,  he  made  the  holes  in  his  mould-board  of  consider- 
able length,  and  in  such  form  that  the  share  could,  when  required, 
be  moved  down  or  with  the  point  and  edge  forward.  Thus  the 
point  and  edge  was  extended,  but  the  desired  effect  was  not  pro- 
duced. The  point  and  edge  would  naturally  wear  to  a  bevel  on 
the  under  side,  and  it  was  owinjx  to  this  circumstance  that  it  would 
not  penetrate  into  the  ground;  not  because  it  wanted  more  length. 
In  my  plow  the  share  is  fastened  on  with  one  screw  bolt ;  more 
may  be  used,  but  are  unnecessary.  Having  the  point  made  round, 
broad  and  much  thinner  than  usual,  with  the  edge  rather  hollow, 
it  is  thus  accommodated  to  the  shape  into  which  it  has  a  tendency 
to  wear.  When  it  is  first  put  on,  a  small  strip  of  wood  or  leather 
is  inserted  between  the  edge  of  the  mould-board  and  the  share. 


History  of  the  Plow.  79 

(See  Fis".  3.)  This  strip  may  be  about  a  fourth  of  au  iuch  thick 
at  or  uear  the  point  of  the  mould-board,  tapering  to  an  edge  at 
the  other  end,  and  about  half  or  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide. 
This  strip  should  be  made  of  such  thickness  as  to  set  the  point  of 
the  share  level  with  the  after  part  of  the  plow;  and  as  the  siil)- 
stance  of  it  is  somewhat  elastic,  the  tendency  is  to  diminish  the 
sharpness  of  the  stroke,  which  would  be  produced  if  the  castings 
were  to  come  together.  The  principal  advantage,  however,  of 
this  method  of  affixing  the  share  is  that  it  affords  an  opportunity 
of  adjusting  the  point  and  edge  of  the  share,  so  that  when  the 
point  and  edge  of  the  share  have  worn  to  a  level  on  the  under 
side,  the  piece  of  wood  may  be  taken  out  and  another  inserted  of 
about  half  the  thickness,  and  then,  again,  if  required,  the  whole 
may  be  taken  out.  By  this  operation  the  point  or  edge  is  let 
down  as  much  as  is  necessary  each  time.  It,  at  the  same  time, 
inclines  the  point  of  the  share  to  the  land,  which  is  as  necessary 
as  to  set  it  deeper.  When  worn  as  long  as  it  can  be  in  this  man- 
ner, strips  of  wood  may  be  inserted  between  the  upper  edge  of 
the  share  and  the  mould-board,  which  will  adjust  it  still  more,  as 
was  recommended  by  Richard  B.  Chenoweth  in  the  use  of  his 
plow. 

"  In  making  my  cast  iron  shares  and  shoes,  if  I  use  a  metal  which 
is  not  too  high,  I  have  one-half  of  the  mould  made  of  cast  iron 
and  the  other  part  of  sand,  in  the  usual  way.  The  shares  and 
shoes  are  thus  rendered  more  uniform  and  less  troublesome  to 
mould,  and  consequently  cheaper. 

"  In  respect,  therefore,  to  the  share,  whether  of  Avrought  or 
cast  iron,  I  claim  the  shape  of  the  point  and  edge  as  of  my  inven- 
tion, together  with  the  modes  of  fastening  the  shares  on  the  plow 
and  adjusting  them,  the  modes  of  moulding  and  casting  shares 
and  other  shoes,  either  wholly  in  cast  iron  moulds  or  partly  of 
cast  iron  and  the  residue  of  sand. 

"  Sixth — The  manner  of  stocking  or  using  the  plow,  heretofore 
the  object  of  all  constructors,  has  been,  so  far  as  I  am  acquainted, 
to  make  the  beam  immovably  fast  to  the  handle  and  to  the  stand- 
ard, whatever  may  have  been  the  particular  mode  of  fastening 
adopted.  In  stocking  my  plow  the  handle  is  made  fast  to  the 
land  side  at  h,  Fig.  5;  I  then  lit  the  beam  on  the  top  of  the 
standard  and  on  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  handle,  so  as  to  lay 
solid  on  one  and  fast  against  the  other,  /  and  t,  Figs.  4  and  5. 
The  beam  is  there  fastened  on  the  standard  with  a  strong  screw 


80  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

bolt,  either  passing  up  through  the  front  of  the  standard  and  the 
beam,  as  at  j,  Fig.  5,  or  I  pass  a  screw  bolt  down  through  both 
the  beam  and  the  top  part  of  the  standard,  and  fasten  the  neck 
of  the  screw  on  the  inside  of  the  mould-board,  atj,  Fig.  4. 

"Either  of  these  modes  will  permit  the  beam  to  move  on  the 
top  of  the  standard  in  the  manner  of  a  swivel,  so  as  to  turn  the 
fore  end  of  the  beam  to  the  right  or  left  at  pleasure,  which  I 
consider  an  object  of  importance  in  the  construction  of  a  plow. 
The  hind  end  of  the  beam  is  then  fastened  to  the  inside  or  out- 
side of  the  handle,  iv^  Figs.  4  and  5.  The  other  handle  is  fastened 
to  the  mould-board  with  two  small  screw  bolts,  and  the  two  han- 
dles connected  by  two  rounds  u  u,  Figs,  4  and  5.  Thus  framed, 
if  it  be  wished  to  set  a  horse  plow  to  work,  after  three  horses 
abreast,  I  fit  a  block  of  wood  in  between  the  handle  and  the  end 
of  the  beam  of  about  two  inches  thick.  (See  x,  Fig.  5.)  It  then 
is  necessary  to  put  a  brace  from  the  screw  bolt  that  fastens  the 
beam  to  the  handle  and  fasten  it  to  the  handle  .above  with  a  small 
screw  bolt.  Fig.  5.  Thus  constructed,  the  plowman  can  raise  the 
end  of  the  beam  by  putting  a  bit  of  leather  or  wood  between  the 
top  of  the  standard  and  the  beam;  if,  on  the  contrary,  he  Avishes 
to  lower  it,  he  can  do  so  by  diminishing  the  thicknesss  of  the 
block  under  the  beam,  or  he  may  raise  or  lower  the  end  of  the 
beam  where  it  rests  against  the  handle.  He  may  give  the  plow 
more  or  less  land  by  adding  to  or  diminishing  the  block  between 
the  handle  and  the  end  of  the  beam,  or  by  loosening  the  upper 
screw  that  fastens  the  handle  to  the  mould-board  at  z,  and  driving 
a  wedge  between  the  mould-board  or  the  handle  more  land  will 
be  given,  and  be  reversed.  Thus  the  plow  may  be  readily 
adjusted  as  convenience  may  require;  and  should  the  wood  spring 
it  can  be  set  right  without  difficulty  or  delay. 

"The  improvement,  therefore,  which  I  claim  to  have  invented 
in  the  stocking  of  the  plow  consists  in  enabling  the  plowman 
thus  to  adjust  the  stock  at  his  pleasure,  the  introduction  of  the 
blocks  between  the  beam  and  the  standard  and  between  the  beam 
and  the  handle,  the  use  of  the  wedge  between  the  mould-board 
and  the  handle,  and  the  particular  modes  of  fastening  the  beam 
on  the  top  of  the  standard  and  the  side  of  the  handle  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adjusting  the  plow  so  as  to  give  more  or  less  land  or  depth. 

^^  8eventh — Of  the  coulter:  If  the  locked  coulter  be  a^Dplied,  it 
is  put  in  a  rib  on  the  point  of  the  wrought  iron  share,  much  in 
the  usual  form,  and  passed  through  a  mortise  in  the  beam  in  the 


History  of  the  Plow.  81 

mode  usually  adopted.  But  having  satisfied  myself  by  experi- 
ments that  it  requires  an  increase  of  twenty-two  per  cent  power 
of  draught  more  to  urge  the  plow  along,  with  such  a  coulter,  than 
with  a  sword  coulter  i^roperly  fitted  to  it,  my  attention  was 
directed  principally  to  the  latter. 

"This  I  apply  in  a  manner  different  from  any  heretofore  used. 
Instead  of  putting  it  through  a  mortise  in  the  beam,  I  apply  my 
coulter  to  the  side  of  the  beam.  (See  y,  Figs.  4  and  5.)  My  mode 
of  doing  it  is  as  follows:  Holes  are  made  through  the  coulter- 
shank,  and  a  strong  screw  bolt  passed  through  the  beam  and 
coulter  ;  a  strong  strap  of  iron  is  fitted  on  the  screw-bolt  outside 
of  the  coulter,  with  a  hook  which  is  turned  back  of  the  coulter 
and  tapped  on  the  front  of  the  throat  of  the  plow.  Thus  fitted, 
if  the  coulter  rests  solidly  against  the  standard  and  fair  with  the 
beam,  when  drawn  tight  to  it  with  the  screw,  it  cuts  to  great 
advantage.  To  operate  more  beneficially,  the  edge  of  the  coulter 
should  stand  about  five  inches  in  front  of  the  throat  and  about 
one  inch  to  land. 

"■Lastly — The  mode  of  using  the  plow:  The  ordinary  mode  of 
using  the  plow  when  draAvn  by  horses  or  mules  is  to  attach  the 
team  to  the  plow  by  means  of  double  and  single-trees,  coupled 
with  what  is  commonly  called  clips  and  open  rings.  A  serious 
objection  to  this  mode  is,  that  the  single-trees,  being  attached 
in  this  manner,  are  at  liberty  to  dangle  about,  so  that  they  occasion- 
ally are  caught  in  the  ground  and  turned  over,  the  chains  become 
entangled  in  the  legs  of  the  animals,  thus  occasioning  frequently 
much  trouble  and  sometimes  serious  injury. 

"  My  improvement  consists  in  the  application  of  the  stiff  double 
and  single-trees  (see  Fig.  8),  which  are  constructed  by  making 
the  double-trees  in  two  bars,  so  that  the  single-trees  work  between 
them.  Thus,  all  the  play  is  admitted  which  is  needed,  and  the 
inconvenience  pointed  out  entirely  avoided.  The  mode  in  which 
the  double-tree  is  attached  to  the  plow  is  by  means  of  a  clevis 
which  opens  in  the  bow  (see  a  a,  Fig.  8),  which  forms  two 
blocks,  admitting  of  being  easily  attached  to  or  detached  from 
the  plow,  perfectly  safe,  and  by  which  the  team  can  be  placed 
farther  from  or  nearer  to  the  plow,  quietly  and  without  trouble. 

"Date  of  patent,  October  1st,  1825. 


"  William  Elliott, 

-Alex.  MclNTiRE,    ^Witnesses." 

6 


"  GIDEON  DAVIS. 


82  Be  POUT  ON  Trials  of  Plows. 

We  believe  that  Mr.  Davis  was  the  first  to  dispense  Avith  the 
perforation  and  consequently  the  weakening  of  the  beam,  in  order 
to  insert  the  coulter.  His  plan  of  attaching  it  to  the  side  was 
imperfect  as  compared  with  modern  methods,  but  it  was  a  step  in 
the  right  direction. 

The  inventors  of  plows  now  multiply  so  rapidly  that  we  shall 
cease  to  enumerate  all  the  patents  that  were  granted,  and  confine 
ourselves  to  those  which  involve  ncAV  ideas,  or  those  which  have 
been  remarkably  popular.  Zadock  Harris,  of  Washington  county, 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  received  a  patent  on  the  17th  day  of 
March,  1819,  for  an  improvement  in  the  pk)\v,  a  figure  of  which 
is  given. 


J^iff.  es. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  specification  will  make  the 
drawinof  intelligible: 

"This  plow  is  different  from  all  other  plows,  inasmuch  as  the 
land  side  i-s  composed  of  three  plates  which  are  fixed  over  each 
other,  and  the  lower  or  under  part  of  the  plow  is  composed  of 
two  plates,  Avith  other  pieces  combined  and  connected,  as  here- 
after described. 

"  The  first  land  side  plate  and  the  under  plate  are  cast  togethei', 
each  in  their  proper  direction  or  position,  which  is  nearly  at  right 
angles. 

"  The  lower  part  of  the  land  side  is  so  formed  as  to  l)e  of  double 
the  thickness  of  the  upper  part,  so  that  the  upper  part  m;iy 
receive  the  cutter  which  fits  the  sunken  part  and  rests  on  the  pro- 
jecting thickness  which  forms  an  angle  of  about  twelve  degrees 
rising  towards  the  back  part  of  the  plow. 

"At  the  upper  end  of  the  said  angular  line  there  is  a  groove 
or  cavity  with  a  number  of  indents  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 


History  of  tub  Plow.  83 

the  hooked  part  of  the  cutter,  by  which  it  may  be  extended  at 
pleasure  Avhen  the  wearing  of  the  cutter  requires  it. 

"The  cutter  is  a  plate  of  steeled  iron,  formed  to  the  shape  of 
the  plow  in  front  and  of  a  thickness  so  as  to  fill  up  the  sunken 
part  l)efore  described  ;  the  under  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
cutter  extends  in  a  narrow  form  having  a  hook  at  the  end,  which 
bends  downwards  and  catches  in  the  indents  before  mentioned; 
when  the  last  mentioned  plate  or  cutter  is  in  its  place  it  causes  the 
surface  of  the  land  side  to  be  flush  and  even. 

"  Over  the  above  described  plates  is  placed  another  plate  which 
may  be  called  the  shelter  plate,  as  it  receives  all  the  wear  of  the 
land  side;  it  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  plow,  and  covers 
the  under  structure;  the  front  part  partakes  of  the  shape  of  the 
cutter  and  recedes  a  little  from  it;  it  is  fastened  either  by  screws 
or  bolts,  which  make  the  whole  land  side  firm  and  secure. 

"The  plate  of  the  under  side  of  the  plow,  which  is  cast  with 
the  first  plate  of  the  land  side,  has  on  its  upper  surface  an 
indented  groove  and  projects  in  front  of  the  plow,  and  forms 
what  is  called  a  nose;  this  bar,  as  it  wears  in  plowing,  may  be 
extended  and  turned  at  pleasure.  On  the  right  hand  side  of  the 
above  mentioned  groove  there  is  a  rising  ratchet  or  toothed  edge, 
the  indents  of  which  prevent  the  under  cutter  from  shifting  its 
situation  when  in  the  act  of  plowing. 

"The  under  cutter  is  formed  of  a  proper  shaps  to  suit  the 
under  part  of  the  plow,  and  is  made  either  of  wrought  iron, 
steeled,  or  entirely  of  iron  ;  the  inner  side  is  bent  downwards  for 
the  purpose  of  catching  in  the  ratchets  or  teeth  before  mentioned, 
when  wanted  to  be  brought  forward,  where  it  wears  in  plowing. 
Towards  the  inner  side  of  said  cutter  there  is  a  long  perfora- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  admitting  through  it  the  shapes  rising 
from  the  cast  plate,  which  fastens  the  cutter  by  a  key. 

"The  mould-board  is  a  separate  piece,  and  made  of  cast  iron, 
having  proper  staples  or  bolts  in  their  proper  situation  for  the 
purpose  of  fixing  it  by  keys  or  otherwise  ;  or  it  may  be  fixed  by 
screws. 

"This  new  construction  of  a  plow  may  be  adapted  to  any  plow 
already  in  use,  and  the  cutters  may  be  made  either  of  steel, 
wrought  iron  or  cast  iron." 

What  is  called  the  "under  plate,"  in  the  specification,  is  a  sort 
of  shelf  extending  across  the  fore  part  of  the  plow  from  the  land 
side  plate  to  the  mould-board  ;   it  is  about  one  and  a  half  inches 


84  B.EPORT  ON  Trials  of  Plows. 

above  the  solo  of  the  land  side,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  on  the 
mould-board  side,  so  that  it  slopes  towards  the  land  side  and 
towards  the  point.  A  flange  is  cast  on  each  side  in  which  the 
bar  runs  which  forms  the  point.  The  other  parts  of  the  plow 
are  described  with  sufiicient  clearness  in  the  specification. 

This  is  the  first  attempt  that  we  have  been  able  to  find  to  meet 
a  want  which  had  been  long  and  which  is  still  felt,  of  guarding 
against  the  rapid  wearing  away  of  the  point  of  the  plow.  This 
plow  was  once  quite  popular  in  Washington  and  the  adjoining 
counties,  but  the  difiiculties  in  the  use  of  the  sliding  point  finally 
overcame  the  advantages  arising  from  its  use,  and  it  finally  dis- 
appeared from  the  market.  The  cases  of  the  patent  office  are 
loaded  with  models  showing  a  great  variety  of  contrivances  for 
an  independent  sliding  and  reversible  point.  The  best  of  these 
contrivances  was  probably  that  of  Prouty  &  Mears,  of  Boston  ; 
at  all  events,  a  greater  number  of  these  were  sold,  and  they 
remained  longer  in  use  than  any  other ;  but  at  present  the  agri- 
cultural community  have  almost  all  gone  back  to  the  point  cast 
on  the  share. 

The  use  of  two  large  wooden  wheels  running  upon  an  axis, 
upon  which  the  beam  rested,  is,  as  we  have  seen,  a  very  old  con- 
trivance ;  but  the  single  wheel,  running  by  suitable  attachments 
under  the  fore  part  of  the  wheel,  is  a  modern  contrivance  of 
which  it  is  generally  believed  Zadock  Harris  was  the  inventor. 
We  are  not  sure  of  the  fact,  but  the  current  of  testimony  is 
undoubtedly  in  his  favor.  He  first  attached  one  of  these  wheels 
to  one  of  his  own  plows  in  the  summer  of  the  year  1820.  It  is 
certain  that  he  introduced  their  use  into  the  northern  part  of  New 
York. 

On  the  first  of  September,  1819,  Jethro  Wood,  of  Scipio,  N.  Y., 
took  out  a  patent  for  his  improved  plow.  This  contained  his 
most  mature  views  upon  the  subject,  and  describes  the  pattern 
from  which  he  never  afterwards  varied.  Very  large  numbers  of 
plows  were  made  from  patterns  furnished  by  him,  and  even  to 
this  day  there  are  many  plows  made  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  which  depart  very  slightly  from  the  principles  estab- 
lished by  him.  If  we  are  not  mistaken,  the  plow  known  as  the 
Livingston  county  is  an  example  of  this  class. 

Jethro  Wood  was  born,  we  believe,  in  Westchester  county. 
New  York,  and  in  early  life  removed  to  Scipio,  Cayuga  county, 
in  that  part  now  known  as  the  village  of  Aurora.     There  Avas  a 


History  of  the  Plow.  85 

large  number  of  the  Society  of  Friends  settled  there,  which 
probably  induced  him  to  select  this  location,  he  being  a  member 
of  that  society.  There  was  much  social  visiting  among  them, 
and  as  they  were  all  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  this  was 
naturally  the  leading  sul)ject  of  conversation  at  these  gatherings. 
Roswell  Towsle}^  Matthew  Patrick,  John  Swanm,  J.  Morgan  and 
J.  B.  Harris,  all  patentees  of  plows  and  all  members  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  were  also  residents  of  Aurora.  It  was  natural  that 
daily  association  with  men  of  this  stamp  should  turn  his  mind  to 
speculations  upon  the  best  form  of  the  plow.  He  was  not,  as  is 
'generally  supposed,  a  manufacturer  of  plows;  we  are  assured 
upon  the  highest  authority  that  he  never  made  a  plow  in  his  life, 
he  made  the  patterns  only,  and  sold  rights  to  manufacture  them. 
Fig.  64  is  an  accurate  copy  of  the  figure  drawn  by  him  and  depos- 
ited in  the  patent  office  as  an  illustration  of  his  views  of  the  best 
possible  plan  for  the  mould-board  of  a  plow,  and  in  connection 
with  the  specifications  which  we  give  in  a  somewhat  abridged 
form  will,  we  trust,  convey  a  clear  idea  to  the  mind  of  the  reader 
of  his  views  upon  the  subject. 


First  Specification. — The  mould-board:  This  may  be  termed  a 
plane  curvilinear  figure,  not  defined  nor  described  in  any  of  the 
elementary  books  of  geometry  or  mathematics,  but  an  idea  may 
be  conceived  of  it  thus:  The  land  side  of  the  plow  measuring 
from  the  point  of  the  mould-board,  is  two  feet  two  inches  long. 
It  is  a  straight  lined  surface  from  four  to  five  arid  a  half  inches 
wide  and  half  an  inch  thick.  Of  the  twenty-six  inches  in  length, 
eighteen  inches  belong  to  the  part  of  the  plow  strictly  called  the 
land  side,  and  eight  inches  to  the  mould-board.  The  part  of  the 
mould-board  comprehended  by  this  space  of  eight  inches  is  very 


86  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

important,  affording  weight  and  strength  and  substance  to  the 
plow,  enabling  it  both  to  sustain  the  cutting  edge  for  separating 
and  elevating  the  soil  in  swards,  and  likewise  the  standard  for 
conncctino;  the  mould-board  with  the  beam.  The  figure  of  the 
mould-board,  as  observed  from  the  furrow  side,  is  a  sort  of  irregu- 
lar pentagon  or  five  sided  plane,  though  curved,  and  inclined  in 
a  peculiar  manner.  Its  two  lower  sides,  b  a  and  a  c,  touch  the 
ground,  or  are  intended  to  do  so,  while  the  three  other  sides,  c  d, 
d  e  and  e  5,  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  oblique  or  slanting 
mould-board  overhanging  behind,  vertical,  midway  and  projecting 
forward.  The  angle  of  the  mould-board,  as  it  departs  from  the 
foremost  point  of  the  land  side,  is  about  42  deg.,  and  the  length 
of  it,  or  in  other  words,  the  first  side,  a  b^  is,  eleven  inches.  The 
line  of  the  next,  or  the  second  side,  a  c,  is  nearly  but  not  exactly 
parallel  with  the  before  mentioned  right  lined  land  side,  for  it 
widens  or  diverges  from  the  angle  at  which  the  first  side,  a  b^ 
and  the  second  side,  a  c,  join  towards  its  posterior  or  hindermosL 
point  as  much  as  one  inch;  hence  the  distance  from  the  hinder- 
most  point  of  the  mould-board  at  the  angle  of  the  second  and  third 
sides,  a  c  d,  directly  across  to  the  land  side,  is  one  inch  more  than 
it  is  from  the  angle  of  the  first  and  second  sides  directly  across. 
The  length  of  the  second  side,  a  c,  is  eight  inches.  The  next 
side,  or  what  is  here  denominated  the  third  side,  c  d,  leaves  the 
ground  or  furrow  in  a  slanting  direction,  backward,  and  with  an 
overhanging  curve  exceeding  the  perpendicular  outwards  from 
thence  to  six  inches,  according  to  the  size  of  the  plow;  the  length 
of  this  third  side  is  fourteen  inches  and  one-half.  The  fourth 
side,  d  e,  of  the  mould-board  is  horizontal,  or  nearly  so;  extend- 
ing from  the  uppermost  point  of  the  third  side  to  the  fore  part 
or  pitch  is  eighteen  inches.  The  fifth  or  last  side,  e  b,  descends 
or  slopes  from  the  last  mentioned  mark,  spot  or  pitch  to  the  place 
of  beo-innino;. 

At  the  low  and  fore  part  of  the  mould-board,  where  it  joins 
the  land  side,  its  length  is  thirteen  inches.  ****** 
The  peculiar  curve  has  been  compared  to  a  screw  auger  and  to 
the  prow  of  a  ship,  but  neither  of  these  similitudes  conveys  the 
fair  and  prope-r  notion  of  the  inventor.  It  has  the  following 
properties:  A  right  line  drawn  by  a  chalked  string,  or  by  a 
straight  ruler,  diagonally  or  obliquely  upwards  and  backwards 
from  a  point  two  and  a  half  inches  above  the  lip  or  extremity  of 
the  mould-l)oard  to  the  an<j;lc  where  the  third  and  fourth  sides 


History  of  the  Plow.  87 

of  the  mould-lioard  join,  which  is  shown  in  the  figure  by  the  line 
h  d,  touches  the  surfiice  the  whole  distance  in  an  even  and 
uniform  application,  and  leaves  no  sinking  or  protuberance  in  any 
part  of  the  distance,  so,  at  a  distance  half  way  between  the 
diagonal  line  just  described  and  th3  angle  between  the  first  and 
second  sides,  a  line,  f  g,  drawn  parallel  to  the  diagonal  line 
already  mentioned  will  receive  the  chalked  string  as  on  a  uniform 
and  even  surface.  In  like  manner,  if  a  point  be  taken  one  inch 
behind  the  angle  connecting  the  second  and  third  sides,  and  a 
perpendicular,  h  t,  be  raised  upon  it,  that  perpendicular  will 
coincide  with  the  vertical  portion  of  the  mould-board  in  that 
place  ;  or,  in  other  words,  if  a  plumb-line  be  let  fall  so  as  to 
reach  a  point  one  inch  behind  the  last  mentioned  angle,  then  such 
plumb-line  will  hang  parallel  with  the  mould-board  the  whole 
way;  the  line  of  the  mould-board  there  neither  projecting  nor 
receding,  but  being  both  a  right  line  and  a  perpendicular  line. 

Moreover,  if  a  right  line  be  drawn  from  a  point  on  the  just 
described  perpendicular,  one  inch  or  thereabouts  above  the  upper 
margin  of  the  fourth  side,  and  from  the  point  to  which  the  said 
perpendicular,  if  continued,  would  reach,  if  the  said  J.  Wood 
repeats  a  right  line,  k  I,  be  drawn  downwards  and  forwards,  not 
exactly  parallel  to  the  diagonal  herein  already  described,  but  so 
diverging  from  the  same  that  it  is  one  inch  more  distant  or 
farther  apart  at  its  termination  on  the  fifth  side  of  the  mould- 
board  than  at  its  origin  or  place  of  beginning,  such  line  so 
beginning,  continued  and  ended  is  a  right  line  parallel  to  the 
mould-board  along  its  Avhole  course  and  direction,  and  the  space 
over  which  it  passes  has  no  inequality  thereabout. 

If  the  mould-board  be  measured  and  proved  vertically  and 
obliquely  by  the  saw  in  fashioning  it,  and  by  the  rule  in  meeting 
it,  and  by  the  chalk  line  in  determining  it,  the  capital  and  dis- 
tino-uishino-  character  of  rio;ht  lines  extendino;  on,  over  and  alono; 
the  peculiar  curve  which  his  mould-board  describes  is  always  and 
inseparably  present. 

/Second  Specijication. — A  cast  iron  standard  for  connecting  the 
mould-board  with  the  beam:  It  rises  from  the  fore  and  upper 
part  of  the  mould-board,  being  cast  with  it,  and  being  a  projection 
or  continuation  of  the  same  from  where  the  fourth  and  fifth  sides 
meet.  By  a  screw-bolt  and  nut  properly  adjusted  above  the  top 
of  the  standard,  and  acting  along  its  side,  assisted,  if  need  require, 
l^v  a  wodo-o  for  tiirhtcnino-  or  loosonino-,  the  beam  may  be  raised 


88  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

or  lowered,  and  tho  mould-board,  with  its  cutting  edge,  enabled 
to  make  a  furrow  of  greater  or  smaller  depth,  as  the  plowman 
may  desire  ;  and  a  latch  and  key  fixed  to  the  beam,  and  capable 
of  being  turned  into  notches  and  grooves  or  depressions  on  one 
edge  or  narrow  side  of  the  standard,  serves  to  keep  the  beam 
from  settling  or  descending.  By  means  of  the  screw-bolts,  wedges, 
catches  and  keys,  with  their  appropriate  notches,  teeth  and  joggles, 
the  plow  may  be  deepened  or  shallowed  most  exactly. 

Third  Specification — Claims  the  share. 

Fourth  Specification — Claims  securing  the  handles  to  the  mould 
board  and  land  side  of  the  plow  by  means  of  notches,  ears,  loops 
or  holders,  cast  with  the  land  side  and  mould-board  respectively, 
and  serving  to  receive  and  contain  the  handles  without  the  use  of 
nuts  and  screws. 

Fifth  Specification — Claims  an  improvement  in  the  method  of 
adjusting  the  cast  iron  land  side  to  the  cast  iron  mould-board. 
Their  junction  is  after  the  manner  of  tenon  and  mortise— are 
joggled  or  dovetailed  together  in  the  casting  operation — so  as 
to  make  them  hold  fast.  The  fore  end  of  the  tenon  is  addition- 
ally secured  by  a  cast  projection  from  the  inside  of  the  mould- 
board,  formed  for  its  reception,  and  if  any  other  tightening  should 
be  requisite,  a  wooden  wedge  well  driven  in  will  bind  every  part 
efiectually  without  the  assistance  of  screws. 

Finally — He  claims  the  right  of  varying  the  dimensions  and 
proportions  of  his  plow,  and  of  its  several  sections  and  parts.  A 
disclaimer  of  certain  portions  of  these  claims  was  entered  Feb- 
ruary 24th,  1838,  and  another  disclaimer  of  certain  other  parts 
Avas  entered  on  the  26th  of  May,  1838. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  plow  became  very  popular 
among  farmers,  and  did  more  to  drive  out  the  wretched  and 
clumsy  plows  of  the  olden  time  than  any  other  which  had  then 
been  invented.  As  late  as  the  year  1820,  a  writer  in  the  Ehodc 
Island  American  says  that,  in  most  parts  of  Massachusetts,  the 
Old  Colony  plow,  with  ten-foot  beam  and  four-foot  land  side, 
were  still  in  use;  and  the  Sutton  plows,  which  he  says  "  are  not 
fit  to  plow  any  land  that  has  sod  on  it;  your  furrows  stand  u[) 
like  the  ribs  of  a  lean  horse  in  the  month  of  March.  A  lazy 
plowman  may  sit  on  the  beam  and  count  every  bout  of  his  day's 
work.  Besides,  the  great  objection  to  all  these  plows  is  that  they 
do  not  perform  the  work  well,  and  that  the  expense  is  enormous  for 
lacksmith  work.     Six  of  these  plows  cost  me,  on  an  average,  last 


History  of  the  Plow.  89 

year,  five  dollurs  each  to  keep  the  shares  and  coulters  Rb  for  work, 
and  the  wear  of  the  other  parts  could  not  be  less  than  one  dolhxr 
more — six  dollars  per  year  for  each  plow."  It  was  the  merit  of 
Wood  that  he  was  more  successful  than  any  of  his  predecessors 
in  driving  out  the  cumbrous  forms  of  the  plow  above  described, 
and  in  forming  a  taste  for  lighter,  better  and  cheaper  implements. 

There  Avere  sold  in  the  city  of  New  York  of  Wood's  plows,  in 
the  year  1817,  1,550;  in  the  year  1818,  1,600;  in  the  year  1819, 
3,600.  We  are  informed  that  the  sale  largely  exceeded  the  last 
mentioned  number  in  the  year  1820,  but  we  cannot  obtain  the 
exact  figures.  These  sales  very  largely  exceeded  the  sale  of  any 
other  plow  then  in  existence. 

The  first  use  that  we  have  been  able  to  ascertain  that  was  made 
of  the  dynamometer  in  this  State  was  at  a  trial  of  plows  at  Mount 
Vernon,  New  York,  on  the  20th  of  November,  1820.  The  width 
of  the  furrow  was  ten  inches,  but  the  depth  is  not  stated.  The 
poAver  required  by  Henry  Burden's  plow  was  two  and  a  half  hun- 
dred weight;  by  George  Woodward's,  two  and  a  half  hundred 
weight;  by  John  C.  Stevens',  three  and  three  quarters  hundred 
weight;  by  Jethro  Wood's,  three  and  a  quarter  hundred  weight; 
and  George  Nixon's,  three  and  a  quarter  hundred  weight. 

It  is  alleged  that  Mr.  Wood  not  only  made  no  profits  by  his 
efforts  to  improve  the  plow,  but  that  he  actually  lost  large  sums 
by  his  enterprise.  His  daughters  have  repeatedly  applied  to 
Congress  and  to  the  State  Legislature  for  compensation,  but  hith- 
erto the  application  has  been  unheeded.* 

It  is  evident  that  Mr.  Wood  had  no  claim  as  the  inventor  of  a 
cast  iron  plow,  because  he  had  been  anticipated  in  this  by  New- 
bold  and  by  several  others.  He  could  not  claim  the  vertical 
straight  lines,  as  he  had  been  anticipated  in  these  by  Jeflferson 
and  Small.  He  could  not  claim  the'  straight  transverse  line,  d  b, 
Fig.  64,  for  Col.  Pickering  had  laid  down  this  line  long  before 
him  on  theoretical  grounds,  and  Jefferson,  without  any  theory, 
had  adopted  it  in  practice.  Mr.  Wood's  claim  must  therefore 
rest  on  the  straight  lines  hf  and  b  I,  which,  we  believe,  fairly 
belong  to  him. 

In  the  year  1817,  Mr.  Edwin  A.  Stevens,  of  Hoboken,  turned 
his  attention  to  the  plow.  He  had  seen  Newbold's  plow,  which 
first  drew  his  attention  to  the  subject.     He  made  a  mould-board 

*  Since  writing  this  Report,  the  N.  Y.  State  Legislature  appropriated  two  thousand 
dollars  to  the  heirs  of  Mr.  Wood. 


90 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


according  to  his  ideas  of  what  was  needed  for  good  plowing,  and 
then  plowed  with  it  in  some  very  sharp  sand  which  he  found  on  the 
shore  of  Hoboken.  Noting  the  parts  which  did  not  at  once  pol- 
ish, he  continued  to  change  the  twist  qf  his  mould-board,  testing 
it  constantly  in  this  way  until  he  found  that  it  would  polish  all 
over  and  in  all  parts  alike.  He  was  then  satisfied  that  he  had  the 
best  plow  that  was  attainable,  and  had  his  castings  made  from  this 
pattern.  But  he  did  a  much  more  important  service  to  plow 
makers  and  farmers  by  inventing  the  process  of  cold  chilling  the 
base  of  the  land  side  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  share,  ignorant 
that  the  same  thing  had  been  done  by  Mr.  Ransom,  in  England. 
This  discovery  constitutes  an  era  in  the  progress  of  the  plow  in 
this  country.  Mr.  Stevens  had  a  very  good  dynamometer  with 
which  he  made  many  experiments. 

In  the  year  1819,  Henry  Burden,  since  so  celebrated  as  the 
inventor  of  cut  spikes  and  horse  shoe  machinery,  was  a  young 
man  who  had  just  arrived  in  this  country  from  Scotland.  He 
brought  letters  of  introduction  to  the  late  Patroon,  Gen.  Stephen 
Van  Rensselaer,  who  informed  him  that  the  plow  in  this  country 
Avas  still  in  a  very  imperfect  condition,  and  advised  him  to  turn 
his  attention  to  its  improvement.  Mr.  Burden  acted  on  his 
advice,  and  constructed  a  plow  which  was  a  decided  improve- 
ment upon  all  that  had  preceded  it.     It  retained  the  principle  of 


0 

III' n  till  III! 


£ 


Mg.  66. 

vertical  straight  lines,  but  was  quite  unlike  both  Small's  and 
Wilkie's.  Many  hundreds  of  them  were  sold,  but  as  an  opening 
was  then  made  for  Mr.  Burden  to  enter  into  a  much  larger  and 
more  lucrative  business,  he  relinquished  the  manufacture  of 
plows.     A  cut  of  the  implement  is  given  in  Fig.  (35. 


History  of  the  Plow.  91 

Mr.  Burden  never  made  a  plow  which  exactly  conformed  to 
his  own  ideas  of  the  true  form,  being  restrained  by  the  preju- 
dices of  the  farmers,  who  required  a  longer  and  heavier  plow 
than  he  deemed  necessary.  In  all  the  trials  that  were  made  with 
this  plow  in  competition  with  others,  it  was  found  to  do  better  work 
with  less  power  than  any  other.  It  was  all  of  iron  except  the 
beam  and  handles;  its  use  extended  as  far  as  Richmond,  in  Vir- 
ginia. 

Many  other  plows  were  patented  and  many  were  made  and 
sold  without  being  patented,  which  varied  very  little  in  their 
general  principles,  but  which  founded  their  claims  on  public  favor 
upon  some  very  slight  real  or  ftmcied  improvements.  As  they 
soon  went  out  of  use  it  is  unnecessary  to  describe  them  in  detail. 

David  Hitchcock,  of  New  York,  constructed  a  plow  which  he 
patented  July  16,  1823,  which  was  very  popular,  and  continued 
to  have  a  large  sale  for  eight  or  ten  years.  These  plows  were  of 
cast  iron,  and  were  much  shorter  than  those  now  in  use.  They 
were  better  adapted  for  stubble  than  for  sod  plowing,  though 
they  did  fair  work  on  sod  land — at  least  it  was  considered  good 
in  that  day;  they  would  not  be  as  well  approved  at  present.  He 
made  seven  sizes.  None  of  these  plows  would  work  well  at  a 
greater  depth  than  five  inches;  the  best  work  was  done  at  four 
inches.  It  was  largely  used  in  New  York,  New  Jersc}^  and 
Canada,  but  most  within  a  circle  of  forty  miles  radius,  of  which 
Worcester,  Mass.,  was  the  centre. 

About  this  period  the  Hingham  self-holding  plow  became  very 
popular  in  Norfolk  and  Plymouth  counties,  in  Massachusetts.  It 
is  the  tirst  attempt  that  has  come  to  our  knowledge  of  a  deliberate 
effort  to  make  a  self-holding  plow,  and  for  this  reason  we  notice 
it,  although  it  soon  went  out  of  use.  It  had  an  oblique  beam, 
set  strongly  to  land,  on  the  forward  part  of  which  a  strong  iron 
axle  was  bolted  transversely  and  at  right  angles  to  it;  on  the  left 
end  a  small  wheel  ran  on  the  grass,  and  on  the  right  end  a  larger 
wheel  ran  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  which  arrangement  pre- 
vented it  from  canting  to  either  side.  On  this  axlo  rises  an  arch, 
through  which  and  through  the  axle  a  perpendicular  shaft  passes 
down  near  the  bottom,  having  a  drum,  four  inches  in  diameter  and 
five  inches  lono^,  which,  rollino-  a<2:ainst  the  edo-e  of  the  slice  being; 
cut,  gauges  its  width. 

Mr.  Joel  Nourse,  who  is  one  of  the  most  successful  improvers 
of  the  plow  of  the  ])resent  generation,  having  made  and  sold  more 


92  ■  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

approved  plows  than  any  other  man  in  America,  if  not  in  the 
world,  learned  the  blacksmith's  trade  of  his  father.  When  he  was 
nineteen  years  old,  his  father  gave  him  his  freedom,  and  entered 
into  partnership  with  him  in  the  year  1827.  He  forged  the  shares, 
coulters  and  other  iron  work  for  the  old  fashioned  wooden  mould- 
l)oard  lock  share  plows  of  half  a  century  ago.  They  employed 
an  expert  wheelwright  to  make  the  hard  wood  or  oaken  mould- 
boards  and  other  wood  work  of  these  plows.  This  was  in  the 
town  of  Shrewsbury,  Mass.,  six  miles  from  Worcester.  Mr. 
Nourse  had  a  keen  eye,  a  quick  ear,  and  a  dexterous  hand. 
Always  on  the  look-out  for  improvements,  nothing  in  the  action 
of  the  plow  escaped  his  observation.  The  shop  was  a  frequent 
resort  of  farmers,  whose  conversation  naturally  run  much  on  the 
form  and  construction  of  the  implements  which  were  being  man- 
ufactured under  their  eyes,  and  which,  in  the  finished  state,  were 
all  around  them.  Mr.  Nourse  carefully  treasured  up  the  hints 
which,  from  time  to  time,  were  dropped. around  him,  endeavoring 
constantly  to  realize  them  in  practice.  In  this  way  the  real  theory 
of  the  plow  began  gradually  to  dawn  upon  him,  and  the  constant 
improvements  which  he  introduced  caused  a  rapidly  increasing 
demand  for  his  work. 

After  his  father's  death  he  removed  his  establishment  to  Wor- 
cester, establishing  himself  there  in  a  wider  field  of  business 
Cast  iron  mould-boards  were  now  getting  into  general  use,  though 
many  farmers  still  were  prejudiced  against  them,  fearing  that  they 
would  poison  the  laud  and  increase  the  growth  of  weeds,  and  that 
they  could  not  be  relied  on  to  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of 
plowing. 

A  foundry,  which  was  the  first  and  the  only  one  in  New  Eng- 
land, had  been  fitted  up  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  expressly  for  the 
casting  of  these  plows.  Mr.  Nourse  was  accustomed  to  go  there 
in  a  two  horse  lumber  Avagon  and  buy  a  load  of  these  castings 
,of  the  Jethro  Wood  and  Hitchcock  patterns,  though  there  was 
much  the  greater  proportion  of  the  latter.  These  he  would  Iirins; 
to  Worcester,  and  having  fitted  them  with  beams,  handles  ;ui(l 
all  other  needful  appliances,  he  sold  them  out  in  a  finished  form. 
After  he  had  been  some  time  established  in  Worcester,  his  busi- 
ness increased  so  much  that  he  took  in  Mr.  Mason,  his  brother-in- 
law,  as  partner,  in  the  year  1837,  and  soon  after  this  they  admitted 
Mr.  Ruggles,  a  brother  of  Judge  Ruggles,  of  Maine,  as  a  third 
partner,  the  name  of  the  firm  being  Eiiggles,  Nourse  &  Mason. 


History  of  the  Plow.  93 

The  new  firm  began,  in  the  year  1840,  with  mtiking  a  series  of 
plows  of  different  sizes,  in  strict  accordance  with  Mr.  Jefferson's 
principle;  but  these  had  but  a  very  limited  sale,  as  they  were  found 
to  be  very  deficient  in  turning  qualities,  though  they  answered 
very  well  in  stubble  land.  On  the  failure  of  tliis  specuhition,  Mr, 
Nourse  determined  to  remedy  the  difficulties  Avhieli  he  found  in 
existing  plows,  and  apply  to  the  new  implements  all  the  know- 
ledge and  skill  which  he  had  acquired  in  the  course  of  his  expe- 
rience. I]i  order  to  accomplish  this  he  took  a  sheet  of  thick  lead 
and  patiently  cut  and  hammered  upon  it  until  he  brouglit  it  to  a 
form  which  his  judgment  approved. 

The  plow  thus  made  Avas  distinguished  from  others  chiefly  in 
two  respects.  First,  by  the  greater  length  of  mould-board,  and 
second,  by  a  nearer  approach  to  straight  lines  in  a  longitudinal 
direction.  The  most  of  the  plows  of  that  day  had  extremely 
short  mould-boards,  and  very  few  of  them  made  any  approach  to 
straight  lines,  in  any  direction. 

The  Eagle  plows,  as  compared  with  others  in  the  market,  were 
very  long;  they  had  more  turn  of  mould-board  at  the  rear  end 
and  a  greater  intensity  of  twist  beyond  the  perpendicular.  He 
was  induced  to  pay  particular  attention  to  this  point  by  the  fail- 
ure of  the  Jefferson  plow  to  invert  the  furrow  slice,  but  he  found 
the  unexpected  result  that,  in  accomplishing  this  object,  he  effected 
at  the  same  time  a  much  more  complete  pulverization. 

The  plow  thus  made  from  the  lead  pattern  was  the  famous 
Eagle  No.  2,  and  was  finished  in  the  year  1842.  This  plow  retains 
its  popularity  to  the  present  day,  large  numbers  of  them  being 
still  sold. 

Finding  this  to  be  a  very  good  and  serviceable  plow,  he  next 
made  Eagle  No.  20,  and  rapidly  thereafter  various  other  sizes  of 
the  Eagle  were  made,  which  are  still  popular,  and  are  shipped 
to  every  part  of  the  world  where  our  commerce  reaches. 

From  the  year  1841  to  1861  the  sale  of  these  plows  reached 
25,000  annually. 

The  Eagle  No.  2  was  the  only  pattern  of  this  series  which  was 
modeled  in  lead,  the  others  being  worked  out  of  the  wood  with 
more  or  less  theory  based  on  the  Eagle  No.  2  as  the  ground 
work. 

In  the  year  1845,  Governor  Holbrook,  of  Vermont,  began  to 
aid  Mr.  Nourse  in  the  planning  of  his  plows.  The  latter  had 
never  been  able  to  devise  any  system  that  would  make  the  straight 


94 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


lilies  come  accurately,  both  vertically  as  well  as  longitudinally, 
but  Governor  Holbrook  devised  a  system  by  which,  if  the  longi- 
tudinal lines  are  carefully  laid  down  upon  the  pattern,  the  vertical 
lines  will  be  certain  to  come  right. 

In  1841  Mr.  Nourse  went  to  Boston  and  opened  a  large  ware 
house,  the  style  of  the  firm  being  the  same  in  both  places.  Some- 
years  later  other  parties  were  admitted  into  the  firm,  under  the 
style  of  Ruggles,  Nourse,  Mason  &  Co.  The  firm  dissolved  ii 
1855,  all  the  old  members  except  Mr.  Nourse  retiring,  and  a  ne\v 
firm  was  formed  under  the  style  of  Nourse,  Mason  k  Co.  This 
firm,  under  its  various  changes,  have  sold  more  plows  than  any 
other  in  the  United  States.     Fig  QQ  represents  Eagle  No.  2. 


J^iff.  66. 

It  is  adapted  to  turn  furrows  from  four  to  seven  inches  deep  by 
twelve  to  fourteen  inches  wide.  It  was  sometimes  rigged  with  a 
common  coulter  for  flat  furrow  plowing,  and  sometimes  with  a 
fin  share,  which  adapts  it  for  stubble  plowing. 

We  insert,  as  a  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  plow,  the 
following  letter,  from  Mr.  J.  Dutcher,  of  Durham,  N.  Y., 
addressed  to  T.  B.  Wakeman,  of  New  York: 

"  The  history  of  the  plow  in  America,  for  the  last  forty  years, 
has  been  so  identified  with  that  of  my  own,  that  in  speaking  of 
the  plow  I  shall  often  have  to  say  something  about  myself.  I 
have  always  considered  the  plow  the  most  useful  and  necessary 
implement  that  man  has  anything  to  do  with,  for  this  reason,  I 
liave  bestowed  upon  it  a  great  amount  of  time,  labor  and  money. 

"  As  early  as  the  year  1^06,  when  I  was  but  a  lad,  I  began  to 
observe  the  difference  in  the  constructions  of  the  plow.  At  that 
time  there  were  two  kinds  in  use;  one  was  called  the  Hog  plow, 
which  was  said  to  be  of  Dutch  origin,  and  another  called  the  Bull 
plow,  a  Yankee  invention.  About  this  time  I  was  learning  the 
blacksmith  trade,  and  had  considerable  to  do  with  the  plow,  in 
constructing  and  making  that  part  of  it  called  the  share.  The 
Bull  plow  Avas  the  most  esteemed;  the   other  went  out   of  use 


History  of  the  Plow.  95 

about  the  year  1809  or  '10.  The  cast  plow,  with  wrou<»;ht  share, 
was  known  in  and  about  Albany  and  adjoining  counties.  It  is 
said  to  be  Mr.  Peacock's  patent.  But  I  considered  all  that  I  saw 
awkward  and  complicated,  not  simple  enough  for  general  use,  hut 
such  as  they  were,  I  made  and  sold,  like  the  other  plow  makers. 
In  the  year  1818  I  heard  that  there  was  a  new  plow  got  up  by 
Jethro  Wood,  and  as  the  plow  was  rather  my  hobby,  I  took  the 
trouble  of  going  some  twenty  miles  or  more  to  see  it.  But  when 
I  come  to  see  and  examine  it  I  found  it  to  be  complicated,  weak 
and  short-lived,  yet  it  Avas  diiferent  from  those  heretofore  used — 
composed  of  three  parts,  a  mould-board,  land  side  and  share. 
The  mould-board  was  too  short  and  too  full  on  the  external  sur- 
face, and  otherwise  not  properly  shaped.  Its  entering  wedge,  or 
first  part  of  the  plow  was  too  low  and  did  not  turn  the  furrow 
upon  the  edge  in  proportion  to  its  entering  the  ground;  in  any- 
thing like  quick  speed  the  furrows  were  broken  and  deranged. 
"  The  land  side  was  too  narrow,  long,  and  too  weak,  and  did  not 
protect  the  front  edge  or  part  of  the  mould-board  on  the  land  side 
and  was  too  straight  on  the  bottom;  the  share  was  far  from  being 
right;  it  left  the  shin  of  the  plow  all  unprotected.  In  April, 
1819,  I  planned  a  plow  which  I  supposed  better  adapted  to  do 
the  work,  as  it  afterwards  proved  itself  to  be.  This  plow  I  did 
not  patent  until  1832.  Owing  to  the  bad  management  in  Wash- 
ington I  lost  my  first  $30.  Not  having  my  specification  at  hand, 
I  will  describe  my  improvement  at  that  time,  April  15,  1819. 
The  mould-board  was  longer  than  any  I  had  known.  It  was  con- 
cave, with  a  corresponding  shape.  My  land  side  I  made  twice  as 
wide  as  Wood's — six  to  seven  inches — and  connected  it  to  the 
mould-board  by  two  wrought  iron  bolts.  My  share,  in  which 
consisted  my  greatest  improvements,  was  constructed  with  a 
projecting  piece  called  a  shin  share,  so  made  as  to  supply  with  a 
new  edge  the  shin  of  the  plow  as  well  as  the  wing.  By  this 
improvement,  w^hich  has  been  adopted  by  all  plow  makers,  the 
plow  was  more  durable  by  one-half.  The  making  of  the  land 
side  concave  on  the  bottom,  although  about  half  an  inch  from  the 
point  to  the  heel  of  the  plow,  was  a  very  simple  but  an  important 
improvement.  The  mould-board  back  of  the  wing  of  the  share 
did  not  touch  the  ground  by  half  an  inch.  The  two  improve- 
ments are  quite  necessary  in  rough  and  stony  lands.  Wherever 
my  plow  was  introduced  it  superseded  Mr.  Wood's.  The  result 
was  a  prosecution  l)y  Mr.  Wood  for  an  infringement  of  his  patent. 


96  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

He  tried  the  second  time,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  both.  About 
1821  persons  in  different  parts  of  the  country  got  up  plows. 
Among  them  were  Mr.  Tice,  of  Washington  county,  Mr.  Wright, 
of  Saratoga,  Mr.  Chamberling,  of  Dutchess,  and  several  others  in 
different  parts  of  the  Union.  They  all  laid  aside  theirs  and 
adopted  my  improvements.  I  found  it  impossible  to  protect 
myself  from  these  encroachments.  Although  my  plow  was  made 
by  all  plowmakers,  yet  I  did  not  consider  it  perfected.  In  1823 
I  ascertained  that  my  land  side  was  not  as  durable  as  it  ought  to 
be.  By  not  extending  all  the  way  outside  to  the  share,  it  left 
part  of  the  mould-board  exposed  to  wear  and  could  not  be 
renewed  without  getting  an  entire  new  mould-board.  To  remedy 
this  I  extended  the  land  side  outside  of  the  mould-board  up  to 
the  share.  Finding  that  the  wrought  standard  I  then  used  was  not 
sufficiently  strong  and  cheap,  I,  in  1823,  extended  the  body  of  my 
cast  mould-board  up  to  the  beam,  securing  the  beam  to  the  body  of 
the  plow  by  a  wrought  bolt  from  the  centre  of  the  land  side  and 
mould-board  perpendicular  through  the  casting  on  which  the 
beam  rested,  and  through  the  beam,  securing  it  with  nut  and 
screw.  These  have  also  been  generally  adopted.  One  more 
improvement  remained  to  be  made.  In  my  letter  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  American  Institute,  published  in  the  journal  of  the 
Institute  in  1837,  I  said  that  the  mould-board,  beam  and  handles 
of  all  the  American  plows  were  too  short.  I  had  been  convinced 
of  this  years  before.  About  1838  I  adopted  these  alterations. 
The  plowmakers  all  followed  suit.  Owing  to  the  imperfection 
of  the  patent  law  I  had  little  encouragement  to  patent  my  last 
improvements.  One  clause  in  the  patent  law  of  183(j,  which 
declared  that  a  patented  article  must  not  bear  sale  at  the  time  of 
the  issue  of  the  patent,  and  that  there  must  not  be  more  than  one 
year  from  the  date  of  the  improvement  before  the  patent  is  taken 
out,  deprived  me  of  my  rights  to  my  improvements. 

•'  My  large  size  plow  that  takes  a  furrow  seven  inches  deep  by 
fourteen  wide,  turns  over  six  and  three-quarter  inches  more 
at  the  top  edge  of  the  mould-board  than  at  the  bottom.  From 
all  that  I  have  discovered  in  twenty-five  years  of  observation  and 
experimenting,  I  have  not  found  one  straight  line  that  I  could 
recommend  on  the  running  part  of  the  ploAv.  Although  a  plow 
will  run  well  in  its  perpendicular  position  if  the  land  side  is 
straight,  3'^et  it  will  run  better  if  it  be  even  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
concave  towards  the  land.     In  no  case  should  it  be  rounding:. 


History  of  the  Plow.  97 

"  There  arc  other  points  that  should  be  kept  in  view,  particn- 
hirly  the  line  of  draft,  compromised  in  the  height  of  the  horses' 
breast,  and  of  the  end  of  the  beam  and  its  length.  I  know  plow- 
makers  Avho  are  unacquainted  with  this  essential  principle.  When 
the  land  side  is  straight  on  the  bottom  from  point  to  heel,  the 
end  of  the  beam  must  be  one  inch  or  more  higher  in  order  to 
make  it  enter,  particuhirly  in  rough  or  hard  land.  This  inch  in 
the  forward  end  of  the  beam  places  it  thus  much  above  the  line 
of  draught.  In  drawing,  the  team  pulls  the  beam  down,  causing 
the  plow  to  run  on  the  point,  and  causing  it  to  run  unsteady,  and, 
as  farmers  say,  to  root  the  ground.  The  half  inch  concave  on  the 
l)()ttom  will  enable  the  plowmaker  to  fix  the  beam  below  the 
line  of  draught,  which  will  make  the  plow  run  flat,  and  not  ren- 
dering it  liable  to  tip  up  behind  when  meeting  with  obstructions. 
This  principle,  as  simple  as  it  is,  gave  m}^  plow  a  decided  prefer- 
ence. The  proper  length  of  the  beam  is  important,  and  often 
overlooked.  Although  smooth,  mellow  soil  requires  some  varia- 
tion in  the  plow  from  that  designed  for  hard  and  stony  land,  yet 
for  hind  in  ijeneral  two  or  three  inches  in  the  beam  makes  o-reat 
difference  in  the  running,  throwing  the  end  out  of  the  line  of 
draught.  The  length  that  I  have  found  as  generally  best  for  an 
half  inch  concave  is  two  feet  two  inches.  I  place  my  plow  on  a 
straight  place,  then  measure  the  perpendicular  from  the  point  of 
the  plow  to  the  beam;  then  from  this  point  two  feet  two  inches  to 
the  end  of  the  beam.  For  hard  ground,  two  feet,  and  for  mellow 
soil,  two  feet  four  inches  are  the  extreme  lengths. 

"Owing  to  the  ignorance  and  prejudice  of  ftirmers  it  has  cost 
me  more  labor  to  introduce  my  plow  than  to  make  the  improve- 
ments. These  difficulties  were  aggravated  by  having  my  improve- 
ments pirated  by  almost  every  plowmaker  in  the  country.  The 
province  of  Congress  is  to  give  protection  to  the  real  inventor, 
not  to  convey  his  improvements  to  another.  Every  farmer  has  a 
I'ight  to  his  own  field  and  its  products;  equally  inalienable  are  the 
rights  of  inventors. 

"  My  long  experience  in  the  construction  and  great  familiarity 
with  the  use  of  the  plow  have  led  me  to  comprise  the  excellencies 
of  the  plow  in  seven  essential  points — materials,  strength,  draught, 
expense  of  first  construction,  workmanship,  yearly  expenses  and 
performance.  A  deficiency  in  one  of  these  may  make  the  plow 
comparatively  worthless. 


98 


Report  on  Tbials  of  Plows. 


"  Mr.  Wood  lays  it  down  as  a  scientific  principle  that  the  lines 
of  draught  of  the  mould-board  should  be  as  shown  in  A;   that  is, 

beginning  at  the  point  of 
the  share,  draw  a  straight 
line  to  the  npper  edge  to 
the  mould-board  behind, 
that  the  straight  line  should 
rest  upon  the  external  sur- 
i'ace  of  the  mould-board  all 
^  the  way  up  to  the  upper 

edge  of  the  mould-board  behind.  This,  he  sa3's,  is  the  line  the 
furrow  follows.  Now  I  assert  that  this  is  not  in  accordance  with 
the  natural  operations  of  the  furrow  as  it  rises  and  turns  from  its 
horizontal  to  its  perpendicular  and  inclined  position.  Practical 
experience  has  shown  me  that  the  surface  of  the  mould-board 
should  be  a  curve  as  shown  by  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the 
forward  point  on  the  lower  side  of  the  mould-board  diagonally 
to  the  upper  end.  This  line  will  be  one  inch  above  the  surface 
in  the  middle.  Lines  drawn  at  right  angles  in  this  line  will  be 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  above  the  surface.  The  furrow  will  follow 
the  curved  lines  indicated  in  cut  B. 

"  The  time  and  money 
I  have  expended  on  the 
plow  are  equivalent  to 
$5,000.  The  advantages 
the  public  have  derived 
can  be  estimated  by  hun- 
dreds of  thousands,  while 
my  returns  have  not  ex- 
ceeded $1,000.  Plowmakers  have  paid  to  Jethro  Wood  sums  that 
should  have  come  to  me,  the  real  inventor  of  the  improvements. 
This  was  done  in  consequence  of  improper  laws  passed  by  Con- 
gress in  his  favor. 

"In  Mr.  Jefferson's  letter  to  Sir  John  Sinclair,  in  1798,  you 
will  find  Mr.  Wood's  mould-board  described.  In  Ransom's  His- 
tory of  Agricultural  Implements,  Johnson's  Encyclopedia  of 
Agriculture,  and  in'the  English  journals  since  1800,  you  will  see 
that  Robert  Ransom  invented  a  cast  iron  share  as  early  as  1785. 
He  also  invented  the  process  of  chilling  the  point  of  the  share. 
A  farmer  in  Suffolk,  England,  made,  in  1790,  cast  land  sides. 
]Mr.  Newbold,  of  Orange  county,  in  this  State,  made  cast  plows 


Plate  VI f. 
MCCORMICK'S  PLOW. 


History  of  the  Plow.  99 

as  curly  as  1790,  and  patented  the  invention  in  1797.  The  patent, 
"which  I  have  seen,  was  signed  by  the  elder  John  Adams.  The 
casting  of  this  plow  went  up  through  the  beam  like  that  of  J. 
Wood's.  Mr.  Peter  T.  Curtenius  of  this  city  had  cast  iron  plows 
for  sale  in  1800.  They  were  of  three  pieces — mould-board,  land 
side  and  share. 

"In  1814,  Mr.  Wood  obtained  a  patent,  again  in  1819,  and  l)y 
special  act  of  Congress  procured  a  renewal  of  fourteen  years, 
making  thirty-three  years  in  all.     He  now  seeks  another  renewal! 

"J.  DUTCHER." 
McCormick's  Plow. 

This  plow  w^as  in  great  reputation  and  use.  The  only  reason 
why  we  have  not  given  a  specification  of  it  at  large  is,  that  having 
given  Davis'  and  others  at  full  length,  it  would  take  up  too  much 
room.  There  are,  moreover,  a  great  many  points  of  resemblance 
between  this  and  Davis'.  A  general  reference,  therefore,  to  the 
drawino-  of  it  is  given  in  connection  with  the  followinoj  extracts 
from  the  original  specification  itself,  which  show  that  the  improve- 
ments consist  chiefly  in  the  following  particulars,  viz.  (See  Plate 
VII): 

First — In  the  shape  of  the  bar  and  point,  as  w^ell  as  the  shoe 
or  fender  to  be  attached  to  a  wrought  or  cast  iron  land  side. 

Second — In  the  face  of  the  mould-board,  and  the  method  in 
which  it  is  wrought;  the  front  edge  of  the  mould-board;  the  curve 
or  projection  over  toward  the  land  side;  the  method  of  making 
the  hole  for  the  brace  or  bolt  through  the  neck  from  the  hind 
part,  or  a  ketch  without  a  hole  through;  also,  the  ketch  at  the 
bottom  of  the  mould-board  to  fasten  the  share  on;  the  concave 
groove  for  the  handle,  and  one  hole  for  a  bolt  to  fasten  it,  and  the 
method  of  hardening;  the  front  edg-e  and  wearing  of  the  mould- 

o  o  o 

board. 

Third — In  the  method  of  fastenino-  the  wrought  share  to  the 
cast  land  side  and  mould-board  by  ketches  and  projections;  the 
fender  or  shoe,  the  concave  groove  in  the  land  side  for  the  handle 
to  fit  it;  the  structure  of  the  fore  part  of  the  mould-board,  for 
the  cast  share,  and  self  sharpening  and  advancing  point,  the  brace 
bar  for  the  bar  to  rest  on,  and  the  method  of  fastening  the  bar  or 
point,  and  its  position  upon  an  inclined  plane,  and  the  shape  of 
the  share. 

Fourth — Putting  the  beam  on  the  outside  of  the  handle,  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  fitted  together,  and  fastening  them  with 


100  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

a  staple  and  two  screw  nuts;  the  adjusting  of  the  beam  on  the 
top  of  the  neck  of  the  mould-board  and  fastening  it  with  one  end 
of  the  brace  or  screw  bolt,  both  coming  from  the  hind  part  and 
through  the  neck  of  the  mould-board,  with  one  screw,  and  raising 
and  lowering  the  beam  at  the  handle. 

FifUi — In   the   shape   of  the    sword    and   front    edge    of  the 
coulter  and  the  method  of  fastening  with  the  stirrup. 

Fig.  1.  A — Beam  bolt.  Fig.  2.  A — Self  sharpening  point. 

B — Fastening  by  a  staple.  B — Share 

C — Mould-board.  C — Shoe  or  fender. 

D— Share.  D— :Mould-board. 

E — Adjusting  screw  brace.  E — Beam  bolt,  hooked  at  lower 

end. 
F — Fastening  by  a  staple    . 


CHAPTER  y. 

HISTORY  OF  AMERICAN  PLOWS— Continued. 

Mr.  John  Mears  was  born  in  1795,  and  was  brought  up  as  a 
plovvmaker.  In  1831  he  became  acquainted  with  David  Prouty, 
a  practical  farmer  and  country  trader,  with  a  mechanical  turn  of 
mind,  Mr.  Prouty  called  his  attention  to  the  Hitchcock  plows, 
with  which  he  had  not  previously  been  familiar.  Finding  them 
much  better  than  any  they  had  ever  seen,  David  Prouty,  his  son 
Lorenzo  and  John  Mears,  formed  a  partnership  for  the  purpose 
of  making  and  selling  these  plows.  They  sold  seven  sizes  of 
these,  and  at  once  found  a  very  large  demand  for  them. 

Mr.  Mears  had  a  very  active  mind,  and  applied  himself  assidu- 
ously to  the  study  of  the  plow.  He  had  not  long  been  engaged 
in  this  line  of  observation  before  he  perceived  the  irregularity 
of  motion  which  w^as  produced  by  the  oblique  insertion  of  the 
beam,  and  he  was  not  Ion";  in  reasoniuij  out  the  centre  drauoht 
principle  which  we  have  described  in  the  chapter  on  "  The  Line 
of  Draught  in  Plows,"  Chapter  VIII.  This  has  been  one  of  the 
most  important  improvements  made  by  American  inventors  of  the 
plow,  and  is  now  almost  universally  adopted  by  all  plowmakers. 

Their  mould-board  was  formed  by  cutting  a  strip  of  sole  leather 
to  the  width  of  the  proposed  furroW;  one  end  of  it  was  nailed  to 


History  of  the  Plow.  101 

a  flat  surface,  and  the  remainder  was  twisted  over  precisely  as  a 
iurrow  would  be.  The  wooden  pattern  was  then  cut  so  as  to 
coincide  with  the  surface  of  the  twisted  leather.  Prouty  &  Mear's 
No.  5i  and  No.  30  were  formed  in  this  wa}'-.  They  became  very 
celebrated,  and  large  numbers  of  them  were  sold.  The  sales  of 
this  firm  amounted  to  about  five  thousand  annually,  at  an  average 
price  of  eight  dollars.  Their  self  sharpening  points  were 
probably  the  best  that  were  ever  made.  The  first  prize,  at  the 
great  trial  in  Albany  in  the  year  1850,  was  awarded  to  these 
plows. 

Messrs.  Minor  and  Horton  began  to  make  what  is  known  as 
the  "  Peekskill  Plow "  in  the  year  1835.  Mr.  Minor  had  been 
an  employee  in  the  establishment  for  nine  years.  The  first  plow 
patterns  made  at  Peekskill  were  by  James  H.  Conklin,  whjle  an 
apprentice  with  Levi  Carpenter  in  1823.  They  were  known  as 
L.  C.  plows,  and  had  two  points  to  the  share,  a  few  of  which  are 
still  in  use.  The  next  was  made  by  Stephen  Gregory,  which 
was  known  as  the  Gregory  plow;  these  were  made  in  1826. 
The  next  were  made  hy  the  same  J.  H.  Conklin,  who  had  formed 
a  copartnership  with  James  Wiley;  these  were  made  in  1827, 
and  were  called  the  Wiley  k  Conklin  plow.  These  suited  the 
market  well,  and  large  numbers  of  them  were  sold  of  seven 
different  sizes.  About  the  same  time  Truman  Minor,  who  was 
the  superintendent  of  Scth  Halt's  foundry,  made  a  set  of  patterns 
for  four  different  kinds  of  plows.  Shortly  after  this  Mr.  Hait 
died,  when  Frost  Horton  and  Truman  Minor  formed  a  partnership 
us  above  stated,  and  having  taken  Mr.  Halt's  foundry,  began  the 
manufacture  of  the  "Peekskill  Plows,"  of  nine  different  sizes. 
In  the  year  1855,  Mr.  Minor  retired  from  the  firm,  and  died  in 
the  year  1862.  On  his  retirement  the  firm  assumed  the  style  of 
Horton,  Depew  &  Sons,  which  continued  to  manufacture  the  same 
kind  of  plows  until  1864,  when  they  sold  out  the  business  to  J. 
B.  Brown  and  I.  L.  Paulding,  who  formed  a  stock  company  known 
as  the  Peekskill  Plow  Company. 

This  company,  since  its  first  formation  and  under  various  names, 
have  made  patterns  for  about  ninety  different  forms  of  the  warped 
surface  which  Mr.  Minor  originally  devised.  They  have,  during 
that  period,  made  about  one  million  sets  of  castings,  and  it  is 
estimated  (though  on  unreliable  data)  that  about  half  as  many 
more  have  been  made  from  patterns  taken  from  these  castings  by 
others. 


102  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Mr.  Minor  made  a  semi-cylinder  of  the  length  of  the  proposed 
plow,  and  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  width  of  the  proposed 
furrow;  the  cylindrical  surface  was  divided  in  both  directions  by 
lines  one  inch  apart.  A  line  beginning  at  the  left  rear  corner  was 
traced  diagonally  through  the  corners  of  the  squares  to  the  right 
front  corner;  the  line  thus  formed  was  applied  from  the  point  of 
the  share  to  the  rear  upper  wing  of  the  mould-board,  and  the 
pattern  was  worked  down  until  it  accurately  coincided  with  it; 
there  is  a  series  of  straight  lines  also  in  this  plow  running  from 
front  to  rear.  Such  is  the  description  of  the  principles  of  the 
Peekskill  plow  given  us  in  the  year  1850  by  Mr.  Minor.  We 
wrote  to  Mr.  Brown,  of  the  Peekskill  Avorks,  to  know  whether  our 
recollections  were  correct.  He  replied  as  follows:  "Your  state- 
ment of  the  principles  of  Mr.  Minor's  plows  expresses  his  ideas, 
as  far  as  it  goes,  as  well  as  they  can  be  briefly  expressed  by  words, 
but  it  seems  to  me  to  convey  no  idea  of  the  helicoidal  torsion 
which,  being  moderate,  constitutes  the  '  easy  lines'  of  Mr.  Minor's 
plows." 

The  Peekskill  plows  have  transverse  straight  lines,  as  we  have 
before  stated.  The  first  or  lowest  of  these  in  the  No.  21  plow 
makes  an  angle  of  21  deg.  with  the  plane  of  the  sole.  The  upper 
line  is  very  nearly  horizontal;  the  intermediate  lines  difler  in  the 
angle  which  they  make  with  the  plane  of  the  sole  by  regular 
gradations;  if  they  are  produced  backward  they  would  approxi- 
mate to  the  form  of  a  fan,  but  they  do  not  radiate  from  a  common 
centre.  The  lines  running  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the 
plow  also  vary  in  the  angles  which  the}^  make  with  the  vertical 
line  which  in  this  plow  is  situated  about  five  inches  in  front  of  the 
extreme  rear  angle  of  the  mould-board.  The  first  of  these  lines 
forms  an  angle  of  about  40  deg.  with  the  vertical,  and  they  regu- 
larly increase  as  they  approach  the  vertical.  The  length  of  this 
plow  from  the  point  to  the  extreme  rear  angle  of  the  mould-board 
is  thirty-five  and  a  half  inches;  the  length  of  feather  fourteen  and 
a  half  inches;  distance  from  land  side  to  the  point  of  the  feather, 
ten  inches;  length  of  land  side  twenty-seven  inches;  distance  from 
sole  to  under  side  of  the  beam  at  the  standard,  fourteen  inches.  A 
figure  of  this  plow  is  given  in  Transactions  of  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society  for  1850,  page  sixty-one.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  of  the  great  excellence  of  this  plow;  its  chief  defect  is, 
that  its  curves  are  too  regular,  and  therefore  it  fails  in  pulverizing 


History  of  the  Plow.  103 

power;  but  its  draft  is  very  easy.  It  won  the  second  prize  in  the 
great  trial  at  Albany  in  1850,  in  fallows  and  in  stiff  sods. 

It  would  be  very  improper  to  pass  over  the  labors  of  the  cele- 
brated Daniel  Webster,  in  a  report  on  the  history  of  plows.  He 
invented  in  the  year  183G  or  1837,  a  plow  for  work  twelve  and 
fourteen  inches  deep,  which  is  still  in  existence,  the  property  of 
his  life-long  and  highly  esteemed  friend,  Peter  Harvey.  It  is 
twelve  feet  long  from  the  bridle  to  the  tip  of  the  handles;  the 
laud  side  is  four  feet  long;  the  bar  and  share  are  forged  together; 
the  mould-board  is  of  wood  plated  wdth  straps  of  iron;  breadth 
at  the  heel  of  the  mould-board  to  land  side,  eighteen  inches; 
the  spread  of  the  mould-board  w^as  twenty-seven  inches;  the 
lower  edge  of  the  beam  was  two  feet  four  inches  above  the  sole; 
width  of  share  fifteen  inches. 

The  history  of  this  plow  is  so  admirably  stated  in  a  letter  from 
Gov.  Holbrook,  of  Vermont,  that  we  give  it  in  his  words.  "I 
have  certainly  been  faulty  in  recollection,  in  that  I  have  not  before 
now,  given  you  an  account  of  what  I  personally  know  of  the 
efforts  of  the  late  Daniel  Webster,  to  improve  the  plow  for  deep 
thorough  plowing.  My  memory  was  jogged  in  this  regard  by  a 
question  put  to  me  in  a  letter  received  from  a  friend,  yesterday, 
touching  this  matter;  and,  therefore,  I  now  write  to  give  you  an 
account  of  Mr.  Webster's  great  plow. 

"  You  doubtless  know  that  Mr.  Webster  was  passionately  fond  of 
farming  and  rural  life,  of  farm  stock,  and  especially  large,  sleek, 
superb  oxen,  of  which  he  always  kept  several  yokes  (as  Ave  say  in 
Yankee  phrase)  or  pairs  for  the  w^ork  of  the  farm  at  Marshfield. 
He  not  only  himself  raised  the  best  of  large,  lusty  steers,  which 
were  closely  matched  and  trained  to  the  yoke,  but  not  unfrequently 
he  bought  Avorking  oxen  when  opportunities  offered  for  securing 
those  which  Av^ere  Avell  matched,  Avell  trained,  of  large  size  and 
superior  quality. 

'•  In  perfect  accordance  with  his  thoroughness  in  everything  else, 
he  belicA'^ed  in  deep,  thorough  ploAA^ing,  and  that  our  farmers  Avere 
quite  too  superficial  in  the  tillage  of  the  land.  But  at  that  early 
day  there  Avere  no  ploAA's  made  that  could  turn  a  furrow  of  more 
than  fiA^e  or  six  inches  deep.  Therefore,  he  determined  to  make 
a  ploAV  himself  that  would  give  him  the  depth  of  furroAv  he  desired 
in  his  farming,  for  a  deeper  furroAV  he  must  have,  no  matter,  he 
said,  if  it  was  a  foot  deep. 

"  According!}^,  some  thirty  years  ago  or  more,  he  set  himself  at 


10  4 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


History  of  tue  Plow. 


105 


_^  ,-1  ^  (M         r-l 

CO  05  CO  <M  "*  »« 


o 


■w 


S  gf^. 


fi  S  c  ^  r- 


5~  «^  rt 


?5  C 


o  o   o   ^  g 


CCS 
O    (U    o 


HHHP 


=^c„ 

o  5^  "o  o  d  o 


106  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

work  to  plan  a  large  plow,  and  employed  a  wheelwright  to  make 
the  wooden  mould-board  agreeably  to  his  directions  and  under  his 
daily  personal  supervision,  and  then  a  blacksmith  was  employed 
to  cover  the  mould-board  with  straps  of  thin  iron  in  the  usual  way 
of  strapping  wood  mould-boards  in  those  days,  and  to  set  the 
wrought  iron  and  steel-edge  share,  and  the  lock-coulter,  which 
passed  up  from  the  share  through  the  beam,  all  agreeably  to  Mr. 
Webster's  directions.  Then  the  wheelwright  was  directed  how  to 
set  the  beam  and  handles.  Everything  must  be  done  precisely  as 
he  directed  as  to  landing  of  beam,  pitch  and  landing  of  share,  etc., 
and  he  felt  as  much  interest  and  enthusiasm  in  the  production  of 
this  plow  as  anybody  could. 

"  The  mould-board  was  immensely  large  and  long,  and  was  con- 
structed substantially  on  Jefferson's  principle  of  straight  lines, 
but  with  such  modifications  and  variations  in  form  as  Mr.  Webster 
thought  best,  such  as  greater  length,  proportionately,  and  with 
more  twist  or  overhang  at  the  rear  end,  so  as  more  surely  to  invert 
the  sod  in  deep  plowing.  It  was  constructed  to  turn  a  furrow  a 
foot  deep  and  about  two  feet  wide.  The  beam,  of  the  toughest 
white  oak,  was  long  and  of  huge  strength,  sufficient  for  four  yokes 
of  his  large  oxen. 

"  When  the  plow  was  completed,  ready  for  trial  in  the  ground, 
Mr.  Webster  was  the  first  man  to  hold  it,  and  worked  several 
hours  with  it,  feeling  greatly  delighted  with  the  capacity  of  his 
new  plow  for  deep,  thorough  work. 

"  With  this  huge  plow  and  a  strong  team  the  rough  tillage  lands 
at  Marshfield,  and  such  of  the  pastures  as  had  become  more  or 
less  covered  with  bushes  and  shrub  oaks,  small  white  birches,  etc., 
were  deeply  plowed  and  thoroughly  turned  over  and  subdued. 
The  bushes  and  shrubs  were  cut  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
cleared  ofi"  the  land,  and  the  roots  and  stumps  turned  over  by  the 
plow. 

"  I  visited  Marshfield  and  Mr.  Webster  about  twenty  years  ago, 
when  he  showed  me  this  plow,  explained  how  and  Avhy  he  got  it 
up,  and  took  me  to  see  a  field  which  had  recently  been  cleared 
of  bushes  and  shrubs  and  deeply  plowed  with  this  large  plow.  I 
remember  his  making  a  remark  to  me,  substantially  as  follows: 
'  When  I  have  hold  of  the  handles  of  my  big  plow  in  such  a  field 
as  this,  with  four  yokes  of  oxen  to  pull  it  through,  and  hear  the 
roots  crack,  and  see  the  stumps  all  go  under  the  furrow,  out  of 
sight,  and  observe  the  clean  mellowed  surface  of  the  plowed  land. 


History  of  the  Plow.  107 

I  feci  more  enthusiasm  over  my  achievement  than  comes  from  my 
encounters  in  public  life  at  Washington.'  That  is  the  idea,  and 
not  far  from  the  lano-uao-e  of  his  remark  to  me." 

The  following  letter,  received  after  Gov.  Holbrook's  gives  Mr. 
Harve^^'s  recollections  of  the  history  of  the  Webster  plow: 

"  Boston,  yl^nV  18^/^    1868. 

"  My  Dear  Sir — I  send  you,  by  to-day's  mail,  the  drawings  of 
the  Webster  plow,  together  with  a  sketch,  which  will  give  you 
the  means  of  furnishing  an  accurate  description  of  its  dimensions. 

"  This  plow  was  manufactured  in  Mr.  Webster's  workshop  on 
his  farm  at  Marshfield;  the  model  and  plan  of  its  construction 
was  entirely  his  own,  and  much  of  the  work  was  performed  by 
his  own  hand. 

"He  had,  on  his  extensive  farm  at  Marshfield,  laying  near  to 
the  sea  (upland  country),  some  eight  or  ten  acres,  more  or  less, 
on  which  there  had  been  a  growth  of  stunted  oak,  lit  only  for  fire 
wood.  This  had  been  cut  for  this  purpose;  and  an  undergrowth 
of  scraggy  roots,  spreading  in  every  direction,  had  sprung  up. 
It  was  useless  for  cultivation  as  it  then  was,  the  roots  or  stumps 
too  small  and  too  numerous  to  be  removed  with  an  ordinary  stump 
puller,  and  too  strong  for  any  ordinary  plow  to  grapple  with. 
This  plow  was  made  to  meet  the  difficulty,  and  succeeded. 

"  I  have  seen  the  great  man  holding  the  plow,  assisted  by  some 
six  or  eight  farmers,  with  strong  arms,  while  it  was  propelled  by 
six  pairs  of  oxen,  tearing  up  roots  and  everything  else  that  stood 
in  its  way,  accomplishing  a  triumph  great  in  its  way,  as  had  been 
often  performed  by  its  maker  in  the  many  intellectual  triumphs 
in  the  forum  and  senate,  and  appai-ently  giving  him  quite  as 
much  delight. 

"The  plow  proved  a  success,  accomplishing  all  for  which  it 
was  intended. 

"  It  is  probably  the  largest  plow  ever  built  on  this  continent. 
"  Most  respectfully,  youi's, 

"PETER  HARVEY." 

A  great  number  of  inventions  for  sul)sidiary  purposes  are 
recorded  in  the  Patent  Oflice,  having  for  their  object  some 
improvement  in  the  clevis,  the  wheel,  the  share  and  various  other 
subordinate  parts;  but  the  next  really  earnest  attempt  to  improve 
the  form  of  the  plow  was  by  James  Jacobs,  whose  patent  is  dated 
July  8th,  1834.  and  is  reprosonted  in  Fig.  67. 


108 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


The  following  extracts  from  his  specification,  will  explain  his 
ideas: 

"  The  mould-board  of  cast  iron,  Fig.  67,  from  the  extreme 
points  of  the  length  of  the  mould-board,  from  a  to  bo.  straight 


line  is  to  be  struck  from  one  to  the  other  of  six  inches  and  one- 
eighth  in  length,  and  from  the  middle  of  this  line  a  perpendicular 
is  to  be  let  fall  to  the  surface  of  the  mould-board,  which  will  l)o 
five-sixteenths  of  an  inch.  A  line  is  now  to  lie  struck  from  the 
point  c,  which  is  to  be  at  the  commencement  of  the  thin  edge  of 
the  mould-board  to  the  point  d^  placed  at  the  shoulder  on  the 
under  side,  for  the  reception  of  the  extreme  edge  of  the  back  of 
the  share  of  two  and  five-eio;hth  inches  in  leng-th.  From  the  lettei- 
d  to  a.  a  straight  line  is  also  to  be  struck  of  four  and  five-sixteeni  h 
inches  in  length;  a  perpendicular,  let  fall  from  the  centre  of  tlii.s 
line  to  the  surface  of  the  mould-board,  will  be  full  three-eighth 
inch  in  length,  and  from  said  point  c  to  the  hinder  circular  edge 
of  the  mould-board,  seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch.  From  the  point 
'I,  to  the  pointy,  a  line  is  drawn  of  four  and  seven-sixteenth 
inches  in  length,  and  a  perpendicular  raised  from  the  centre  of 
this  line  to  the  top  of  the  circular  jjart  of  the  upper  edge  of  tlu? 
mould-board  will  be  a  full  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  From 
the  lettery  to  the  letter  b  on  the  front  edge  of  the  mould-board 
a  line  is  to  be  struck  of  two  and  three-quarter  inches  in  length,  and 
from  the  centre  of  this  line  a  perpendicular  let  fall  on  the  front 


History  of  the  Plow.  109 

edse  of  the  mould-board  will  be  five-sixteenths  inch  in  len^rth. 
From  the  point  d  to  the  point  b  a  line  is  to  bo  struck  of  two  and 
three-sixteenth  inches  in  length,  and  a  perpendicular  raised  frojn 
the  centre  of  this  line  to  the  thin  edge  of  the  mould-board  will 
be  one-quarter  inch  in  length.  The  portion  of  the  surface  of  the 
mould-board,  contained  betvveeu  each  point  or  extremity  of  these 
original  straight  lines  struck  as  above  directed,  is  to  be  shaped 
upon  that  segment  or  portiou  of  a  circle  as  will  be  between  said 
point  having  the  perpendicular  for  the  height  of  the  arch;  the 
line  a  h  will  be  the  only  exception  to  the  rule,  and  in  this  particu- 
lar that  three-quarters  of  the  distance  across  from  a  towards  b  will 
be  described  on  nearly  a  straight  line,  the  extremity  of  the  point 
beino;  a  little  elevated. 

"  From  the  point  k  to  the  point  g  in  Fig.  2,  showing  a  left  hand 
view  of  the  mould-board,  the  line  between  these  extremities  or 
points  will  be  of  one  and  three-sixteenth  inches  in  length,  and 
another  line  from  the  point/ top'  will  be  two  and  a  half  inches  in 
length;  the  point  k  is  to  drop  one-eighth  of  an  inch  below  a  hori- 
zontal line  drawn  from  g  towards  b.  From  the  point  g  to  b  the 
length  of  the  line  will  be  one  and  three-sixteenths  inch.  From 
the  point  h  to  I  the  length  will  be  one  and  five-sixteenths  of  an 
inch.  A  perpendicular  is  let  fall  from  the  point  a  to  the  hori- 
zontal plane  on  which  the  flat  part  of  the  under  side  of  the 
mould-board  rests,  designated  by  the  point  I,  being  that  of  the 
intersection,  and  another  line  at  right  angles  with  it,  being  con- 
tinued from  the  point  I  till  it  intersects  the  line  running  along 
the  face  of  the  slice  from  k  to  g,  parallel  with  the  bar,  at  the 
point  j  gives  a  line  struck  from  I  to  j  of  three  inches  in  length, 
which  gives  the  correct  width  of  the  board  behind  from  outside 
to  outside.  On  the  back  of  the  inside  of  the  mould-board  a  flat 
shoulder  is  formed  of  about  two  inches  in  length,  increasing  in 
thickness  of  the  mould-board  towards  the  upper  part  to  about 
double  the  width  of  the  average  thickness  of  the  mould-board 
throughout,  and  thereby  presents  a  flat  surface  upon  which  the 
right  handle  is  bolted.  On  the  line  k  g,  as  a  base,  a  perpendicu- 
lar is  to  be  raised  through  /  to  the  point  m  g  two  and  three- 
quarter  inches  in  height,  and  another  parallel  to  it  at  one  inch 
distant  of  two  and  nine-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  height.  The 
distance  from  m  to  o  will  be  a  projection  of  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  forwards.  The  curved  line  of  the  front  edge  of  the  slice 
continues  its  direction  beyond  /about  half  the  distance  on  to  m, 


110  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

when  it  projects  forward  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  and  is  then 
moulded  off  to  the  point  o,  thereby  leaving  sufficient  shoulder 
for  the  hole  through  which  the  front  bolt  is  to  be  fastened.  On 
the  face  of  the  mould-board,  Fig.  1,  the  concave  surface  d  to  e 
continues  in  the  same  slope  to  about  two-thirds  the  distance  above 
the  neck  over  the  line  f  c,  where  it  projects  forward  in  a  concave 
sufficiently  deep  for  the  reception  of  the  head  of  the  front  bolt 
terminating  at  the  top  under  the  beam  in  a  sharp  edge,  having 
the  corners  rounded  off.  The  back  part  of  this  head  runs  back 
about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  beyond  the  curved  line  of  the  back 
part  of  the  slice,  thereb}'  leaving  space  for  the  insertion  of  a  hole 
to  be  cast  for  the  reception  of  the  end  of  the  brace  that  extends 
from  the  heel  of  the  bar  to  the  said  hole  in  the  head.  This  form 
and  arrangement  present  such  a  shaped  mould  or  pattern  as  may 
be  cast  at  one  operation. 

"  Fig.  3  is  a  view  of  the  share  where  a  line  from  the  point  a 
to  the  point  c  extends  to  two  and  four-eighths  inches  in  length, 
and  a  line  from  c  to  b  is  of  three  and  three-eighths  inches  in  length, 
and  the  distance  c  to  e  is  one  and  five-eighths  inches  along  the  bar. 
The  width  of  the  share  from  e  to  d  is  two  and  three-eighths 
inches,  and  the  edge  from  heel  to  point  is  sharp  throughout. 
That  part  between  a  and  /  extending  in  a  circular  from  d  to  f, 
and  the  remainder  of  the  point  from  f  to  a,  is  rounded  at  the 
extremity  of  said  point.  The  depth  at  c,  in  Fig.  4,  of  the  bar 
is  to  be  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  at  e  it  is  to  be  seven-eighths, 
and  extending  back  to  b  of  the  same  depth,  this  share  and  bar  is 
to  be  made  of  wrought  iron.  These  proportions  are  reduced  to 
one-fourth  of  a  plow  of  full  size,  so  that  in  constructing  a  mould- 
board  of  the  full  size  of  my  '  Smeller  Plow '  the  proportions  are 
to  be  increased  accordingly." 

It  will  be  observed  that  Mr.  Jacobs'  method  is  wholly  empirical, 
or,  at  least,  if  there  is  a  principle  involved  in  its  construction,  it 
is  not  obvious  to  us  after  a  careful  examination,  and  none  is  hinted 
at  in  the  specification.  It  consists  simply  of  lines  drawn  in  certain 
directions,  and  of  specified  lengths  in  a  plane  and  from  given 
points  in  these  lines,  letting  fall  perpendiculars  of  given  lengths, 
which  are  ordinates  to  the  desired  curve  at  these  points;  the  points 
of  the  curve  being  ascertained  in  this  way,  the  remainder  of  the 
pattern  is  cut  aAvay  so  as  to  form  a  regular  curve  with  them. 

The  next  attempt  to  apply  mathematical  principles  to  the  con- 
struction of   the    mould-board  was    made  by  Aaron    Smith,   of 


History  of  the  Plow. 


Ill 


BloomfieUl,  Michigan,  who  obtained  a  patent  May  10th,  1844. 
This  is  the  plow  which  first  came  into  notice  as  the  "  Michigan 
plow "  at  the  great  trial  by  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society,  at  Albany,  in  1850,  and  which,  with  some  important 
modifications,  is  now  known  as  the  sod  and  sab-soil  plow,  and  is 
one  of  the  best  plows  in  existence  for  sod  lands.  A  figure  of  this 
plow  complete  is  given  in  the  Society's  Transactions  for  1850. 
Figs.  69  a,  69  b,  69  c,  69  cZ,  69  e,  69  /,  68  and  69  represent  the 
plow  in  detail.  Fig.  Q>^  represents  the  sole;  Fig.  69 _/' represents 
the  sole  of  the  share. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  specification  will  give  an  idea 
of  the  principles  involved  in  its  construction: 

"  Fig.  68  is  a  plan  of  the  hind  plow  as  I  draw  it  on  my  working- 
board  when  preparing  to  make  a  pattern.  The  numbers  on  the  line 
J  J,  representing  the  land  side,  show  the  distance  between  the 
principal  points  of  the  varying  outline  of  the  mould-board  as 


|,,8  7  6  J    <^  3  2    /  (!) 

lA 

'If    1     1     1      1     1     1     1     T                   1                    i|i|i||i| 

W              Sc^le       1'/^  inch  1  foot                    ll| 

T\^ 


Fig.  68. 


marked  by  the  dotted  lines  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  land-side 
and  terminating  in  those  principal  points.  The  distance  from  the 
face  of  the  land  side  to  these  principal  points  are  marked  on  these 
dotted  lines. 

"  Fig.  69  is  a  rig-ht-hand  or  face-view  of  the  mould-board,  with 
the  share  attached,  showing  the  outline  of  its  respective  sides.  The 
line  u  I  is  erected  perpendicularly  from  the  point  of  the  mould- 
board.  The  measurements  in  the  dotted  lines,  drawn  horizontally 
from  the  perpendicular,  give  the  outline  of  the  head  of  the  board. 


112 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


said  measurements  being  taken  at  the  respective  distances  marked 
on  the  perpendicular;  the  line  m  n  is  drawn  in  the  plane  of  the 
base  of  the  mould-board,  and  the  numbers  from  the  perpendicu- 
lars drawn  from  the  line  give  the  outline  of  the  lower  side  of  the 
end  of  the  board,  and  also  of  the  top  of  it  us  far  as  the  lin-;  op; 


Fig.  69. 

and  the  measurements  from  the  line  p  ?',  drawn  through  the  point 
p,  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  base  ot  the  board,  gives  its  remain- 
ing outline  to  the  sheath  (generally  called  the  standard).  The 
line  n  b'  c'  p  is  a  guide  line  in  forming  the  face  of  the  board.  The 
curve,  b  c  h,  may  be  determined  bv  the  scale  of  one  and  a  half 
inches  to  the  foot,  which  is  that  to  which  the  respective  figures 
showing  the  parts  in  details  are  drawn.  The  face  of  the  mould- 
board  was  exactly  perpendicular,  and  the  line  o  jj  from  5-  to  p  is 
in  it;  o  p  is  also  one  of  the  guide  lines  in  forming  the  face  of  the 
board.  The  rise  of  the  line  of  the  board  from  a'  to  t'  is  made  at 
such  a  rate,  compared  with  the  spread  of  the  board,  as  will  exactly 
preserve  through  that  distance  the  same  width  of  the  plow  as  at 
the  heel,  a'.  From  t'  to  the  perpendicular  the  rise  is  such  that 
the  increased  width  of  the  plow  (Fig.  6S)  is  to  the  distance  as 
one  to  two  and  one  quarter  inches,  and  from  the  perpendicular  to 
the  end  of  the  board  these  measurements  are  as  one  to  one.  The 
point,  t',  being  where  the  action  of  the  farrow  slice,  following 
that  of  the  heel,«',  commences,  I  make  that  a  point  through  which 
to  draw  a  line  from  the  point  of  the  mould-board,  «,  to  the  per- 
pendicular.    This  line  also  lies  in  the  surface  of  the  board,  and  as 


History  of  the  Plow. 


113 


^''^^^. 


D?^ 


Fig.  69,  d. 


Fig.  69,  e. 


114  Report  on  Trtals  of  Plows. 

a  guide  line.  The  lines  v  p  and  v  u,  both  being  in  the  surface  of 
the  board,  the  one  where  the  furrow  slice  is  nearly  horizontal, 
and  the  other  where  it  is  perpendicular,  the  point,  v.  Fig.  69, 
I  take  as  a  radiating  point  to  u  b'  c'  jp.  A  straight  edge  is  to  lie 
in  each  of  these  radiating  lines  so  as  to  fit  the  actual  mould-board. 

"  The  same  figure  also  exhibits  another  series  of  lines  which  lie 
in  the  surface  of  the  board.  These  are  parallel  to  the  forward 
part  of  the  base,  u  s,  of  the  board,  and  touch  the  curve,  u  b  c  p, 
and  the  perpendicuhir,  o  ]).  They  are  also  fitted  by  a  straight 
edge.  The  angle  formed  by  the  base  of  the  land  side  and  the 
line  li  s  is  about  37|  degrees.  The  triangular  space,  a'  s  m,  repre- 
sents the  heel  of  the  mould-board,  which  is  so  formed  as  to  cause 
it  to  lift  or  carry  up  the  furrow  slice  to  the  top  of  that  of  the 
forward  plow,  which  is  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  inches. 
The  form  of  this  part  is  shown  in  Fig.  69,  b  i  s,  which  is  an  end 
view  of  the  heel,  looking  at  it  from  the  rear  end  of  the  plow. 
The  line  a  s  is  formed  by  the  termination  of  the  curving  out  of  the 
mould-board  as  seen  at  a',  Fig.  69,  b  is;  the  part  a'  in  the  same 
figure  being  a  vertical  continuation  of  the  body  of  the  mould- 
board  down  to  the  sole,  by  which  particular  form  this  j^art  is 
removed  entirely  out  of  the  way  of  the  furrow  slice  of  the  forward 
jjlow.  The  slice  cut  off  by  the  fore  plow  may  be  about  two  and 
a  half  or  three  inches  in  thickness,  and  it  is  turned  over  by  it 
into  the  furrow  last  made. 

"Fig.  9  is  a  left-hand  view  of  the  mould-board  of  the  forward 
plow,  separate  from  the  share  and  land  side.  E,  Fig.  12  is  the 
share  seen  in  place  in  Figs.  16  and  17. 

"Fig.  14  is  the  plan  of  the  length  and  width  of  this  plow  cor- 
responding to  Fig.  68  of  the  hind  plow. 

"Fig.  15  is  a  right-hand  view  of  the  mould-board,  share  and 
coulter  as  combined  for  use. 

"  It  wall  be  seen  on  inspection  that  the  curve  of  the  mould- 
board  forms  an  irregular  conical  fioure,  the  larger  end  beino" 
directed  forward." 

In  October,  1839,  Samuel  Witherow,  of  Gett3'sburg,  and 
David  Pierce,  of  Philadelphia,  took  out  a  patent  Avhich  was  truly 
novel.  We  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  that  it  ever  got  into 
general  use,  but  it  certainly  seems  worthy  of  a  thorough  trial. 
The  following  extract  from  the  specification  will  show  the  prin- 
ciple upon  which  it  was  founded  very  clearly: 

"  It  is  a  princi])le  resting  upon  mathematical  dcm  uistration  that 


History  of  the  Plow. 


115 


a  cycloiJal  arc  is  that  which  offers  the  least  resistance  to  a 
descending  body,  and  it  is  hence  deducible  that  an  ascending 
l)ody  will  pass  up  a  cycloidal  curve  with  less  resistance  than  up 
any  other." 

This  may  be  true,  but  wo  have  never  seen  any  such  demonstra- 
tion. It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  a  body  will  fall  through  a 
cycloidal  arc  in  less  time  than  any  other. 

"  The  construction  of  our  mould-boards  is  dependent  on  this 
principle.  In  forming  them  we  employ  the  cycloidal  curve  iu 
two  Avays,  namely,  to  the  formation  of  the  concave  of  the  mould- 
board  in  the  lines  of  ascent  of  the  sward  or  furrow  slice  in  the 
act  of  plowing.  The  second  application  of  the  cycloidal  curve  is 
in  the  convex  curve  along  the  sole  of  the  plow,  constituting  the 
part  which  enters  and  cuts  the  ground  horizontally.  In  the 
accompanying  drawing.  Fig.  70  represents  a  mould-board,  A  being- 
its  point  and  B  its  heel; 
H  the  line  A  B  is  that  of 
the  sole  constituting  the 
lower  edge  which  cuts 
the  furrow  slice  horizon- 
tally. This  curve  in  a 
pjow  which  has  been 
essayed,  and  has  been 
found  to  answer  well,  was  generated  by  a  circle  of  eighteen 
inches  in  'diameter. 

"  In  Fig.  71  the  curve  C  D  E  may  represent  the  cycloid  genera- 
ted by  the  cii'cle  F.  The  point 
D,  which  is  that  of  least  curva- 
ture, corresponds  ^vitli  the  point 
A  of  the  plow  Fig.  70,  the 
cycloidal  line  continuing  to  the 
hind  part  or  heel  at  B.  It  will, 
no  doubt,  be  advantageous  to 
vary  the  curve  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil — a  point  to  bo 
determined  by  experience — but  whatever  variation  may  be  found 
useful  in  this  respect  is  still  to  be  made  in  conformity  with  the 
principle  upon  which  we  proceed,  namely,  that  of  making  it 
cycloidal.  The  line  I  H  along  the  upper  part  of  the  mould-board 
and  in  a  plane  parallel  to  that  of  the  plane  of  the  line  A  B,  we 
also  make  to  fit  the  same  cycloidal  gauge. 

"  In  the  plow  that  has  been  put  in  operation  with  a  view  of  testing 


Ji'ig.  70. 


F'ig 


116  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

the  principle,  the  lines  of  the  ascent  of  the  furrow  slice  which 
govern  the  concavity  of  the  mould-board,  were  regulated  by  a 
cycloidal  gauge  made  to  a  curve  generated  by  a  circle  of  sixteen 
inches  in  diameter.  Let  C  D  G,  Fig.  71,  represent  such  a  gauge, 
and  the  lines  a^  a^,  &c..  Fig.  70,  be  assumed  as  those  of  the  ascent  of 
tlie  furrow  slice  on  the  mould-board;  in  formino^  said  board  we 
place  the  gauge  in  the  direction  a'  with  the  part  D,  which  is  that  of 
least  curvature  at  a',  and  thus  proceed  on  until  we  arrive  at  the 
hinder  part,  B  H,  withdrawing  or  lowering  the  gauge  at  its  lower 
end  at  each  successive  application,  so  that  a  small  ^lortion  of  the 
least  curved  portion  towards  D,  and  a  larger  portion  of  that 
towards  C  shall  touch  the  mould-board;  these  successive  depres- 
sions may  be  indicated  by  the  divisions  at  D  upon  the  gauge. 
The  degrree  in  which  the  mould-board  shall  curve  and  hang^  over 
at  H  for  turning  the  furrow  slice  may  be  varied  according  to  the 
judgment  of  the  maker,  the  curvature  being  governed  by  the 
diameter  of  the  o-eneratino-  circle  and  the  deo:ree  in  which  the 
gauge  is  depressed  at  every  successive  application  of  it. 

"  Having  thus  fully  set  forth  the  nature  of  our  invention,  and 
shown  the  manner  in  which  we  carry  the  same  into  operation, 
what  we  claim  therein  is  the  giving  to  our  mould-board  the  seg- 
ment of  a  cycloid  convexly  on  its  face  in  a  line  leading  from  front 
to  rear,  and  concavely  in  the  lines  of  the  ascent  of  the  furrow 
slice." 

Eemarks  by  the  Inventors. 

"The  main  object  is  to  pulverize  the  soil" — (they  are  the  first 
who  have  made  this  avowal  among  inventors) — "  and  the  onl}'  way 
in  which  this  can  be  eftected  is  by  bending  a  furrow  slice  on  a 
curved  surface" — (this  is  the  first  allusion  that  we  have  met  with 
to  the  influence  of  the  shape  of  the  surface  in  cracking  the  soil) — 
"so  formed  that  it  shall  also  twist  it  somewhat  in  the  manner  of 
the  screw.  Such  a  surface  will  be  formed  by  taking  a  strip  of 
iron  and  twisting  it  after  the  manner  of  a  screw  auger;  and  if 
there  is  given  to  this  piece  of  iron  a  greater  twist  at  one  end  than 
the  other,  cycloidal  curves  may  be  thereby  produced.  Now  as 
the  curvature  of  the  cycloidal  mould-board  generally  increases 
from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  point  of  ascent,  it  follows,  neces- 
sarily, that  the  furrow  slice,  in  passing  along  it,  will  ])e  more  and 
more  bent  as  it  ascends.  By  forming  the  fore  part  of  the  mould- 
board  by  means  of  that  point  of  the  cycloidal  gauge  which  has 
the  least  curvature  and  the  hinder  part  b^-  tiiat  portion  which  lias 


History  of  the  Plow.  117 

the  greatest,  the  bending  of  the  furrow  will  continue  and  be 
increased  as  it  passes  horizontally  as  well  as  in  its  ascent.  By 
forming  the  lines  of  ascent  cycloidal  concavely  and  the  horizontal 
lines  cycloidal  convexly,  the  twist  in  the  mould-board  will  gradu- 
ally increase  from  the  fore  to  the  hinder  part  as  the  curves  con- 
tract, which  Avill  operate  very  advantageously  in  pulverizing  the 
soil.  The  convex  cycloidal  form  given  to  the  horizontal  lines  will 
cause  the  furrow  slice  to  leave  the  mould-board  in  a  direction 
M'cll  calculated  to  prevent  it  from  falling  otf  in  segments.  The 
advantages  possessed  by  this  mould-board,  as  has  been  abundantly 
proved  in  practice,  are,  that  it  will  seem  light,  and  that  it  will 
turn  the  furrow  slice  over  in  a  connected  sheet  well  pulverized." 

It  has  always  been  an  object  with  inventors  to  diminish  the 
friction  of  the  land  side.  The  first  earnest  attempt  to  realize  this 
idea  in  practice  was  by  T.  D.  Burrall,  of  Geneva,  who  claimed,  on 
the  28th  of  October,  1843,  as  follows: 

"The  nature  of  the  invention  consists  in  removing  the  sole  of 
the  land  side,  and  placing  an  inclined  wheel,  denominated  a  shell 
wheel,  between  the  land  side  and  the  mould-board,  with  its  face 
in  a  line  with  the  cut  of  the  coulter.  The  land  side  curves  up 
from  the  point  of  the  share  and  backward  to  the  junction  of  the 
handle  and  beam.  The  beam  is  halved  on  the  land  side  outward 
and  the  handle  is  aifixed  to  the  side  of  it,  the  whole  being  secured 
by  a  screw  bolt  passing  through  them.  This  forms  a  secure  joint, 
without  tenon  and  mortise,  without  materially  weakening  the  beam 
or  handles.  This  plow  was  carefully  tested  by  the  New  York  State 
Agricultural  Society.  At  first  it  ran  easier  than  the  plows  that 
were  tried  in  competition  with  it,  but  after  a  little  while  it  became 
choked,  and  then  its  draft  was  greater  than  the  others.  The 
judges  of  the  society  did  not  consider  it  an  improvement,  and  we 
believe  the  public  have  pretty  fully  ratified  their  decision." 

In  the  year  1839,  Cyrus  Alger,  of  Boston,  received  a  patent  for 
annealing  cast  iron  plows,  by  which  they  were  rendered  malleable, 
so  that  the  shape  could  be  altered  when  desired,  and  then  hardens  I 
and  tempered  like  steel.  We  are  not  informed  whether  this 
patent  was  ever  brought  into  practical  use,  or  whether  it  answered, 
in  any  tolerable  degree,  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed. 
If  it  really  accomplished  what  it  proposed  to  do,  it  would,  in  our 
judgment,  be  very  important. 

The  next  attempt  at  a  mathematical  mould-board  was  made  by 
Mr.  Samuel  A.  Knox,  of  Worcester,  for  m.-iiiy  years  the  foreni.iii 


118  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

of  Messrs.  Ruggles,  Nourse  &,  Mason.  It  is  strictly  geometrical 
in  its  construction,  and  it  probably  works  with  as  little  resistance 
as  any  plow  that  was  ever  made.  It  turns  over  the  furrow  very 
handsomely  as  well  as  evenly,  and  would  secure  the  unlimited 
approbation  of  an  English  plowman;  but  its  pulverizing  power  is 
somewhat  deficient,  and  it  therefore  fails  in  what  we  consider  one 
of  the  most  important  functions  of  a  plow.  A  view  of  all  the 
lines  is  given  in  Plate  VIII.     The  patent  for  this  method  was 

granted  in  1852. 

KJNOx's  Specification. 

"To  enable  any  one  skilled  in  the  art  of  plow-making  to  form 
the  mould-board  of  plows,  according  to  my  said  invention,  I  will 
first  describe  the  mode  of  determinino-  the  form  of  the  surface 
of  a  pattern  from  which  to  mould  and  cast  the  mould-board  of  a 
green-SAvard,  flat-furrow  plow  intended  for  a  twelve-inch  furrow; 
and  I  will  then  indicate  the  changes  necessary  to  the  production 
of  the  required  form  for  an  old-ground  plow,  from  which  any 
skillful  plowmaker  will  be  enabled  to  make  the  necessary  change  s 
for  plows  of  any  other  dimensions. 

"  For  making  the  pattern  from  which  to  cast  the  mould-board 
of  a  green-sward,  flat-furrow  plow,  I  first  determine  the  propor- 
tions of  the  base  by  drawing  a  line,  A  a,  diagram  Fig.  1,  which 
represents  the  line  of  the  land  side,  and  at  right  angles  to  this  I 
draw  another  line,  B  b,  on  which  I  determine  the  breadth  of  the 
base  of  the  plow  from  the  line  of  the  land  side  to  the  heel,  c,  of 
the  mould-board,  say  twelve  inches  for  a  furrow  of  that  breadth, 
and  this  I  divide  into  inches.  I  then  draw  two  lines,  D  d  and 
E  e,  parallel  with,  and  one  on  each  side  of,  and  at  a  distance  of 
twelve  inches  from,  the  line  B  b.  I  then  draw  a  diagonal  line, 
F  y,  from  the  intersection  of  the  line  D  d  and  A  a,  passing 
through  the  line  B  b  iit  c  (the  heel  of  the  intended  mould-board), 
and  project  the  said  line  until  it  intersects  the  line  B  e  at  e,  and 
the  plane  of  this  line,  B  f,  perpendicular  to  the  base,  at  tlio 
I'cquired  height,  to  be  hereafter  specified,  determines  the  iucli na- 
tion of  the  upper  edge  of  the  working  surface  of  the  intendi'd 
mould-board  to  the  vertical  plane  of  the  line  A  a  or  laud  side. 
The  distance  of  the  point  of  the  plow  at  //,  from  the  line  B  b,  is 
determined  by  multiplying  the  length  of  the  diagonal  line,  Bf, 
in  inches,  from  the  point  where  it  intersects  the  lines  A  a  and 
D  d  to  the  point  of  its  intersection  with  the  line  B  b,  by  an 
equ;il    nmnbcr  of  inclics,  and    (Icn    dividing   this   product  ))y  the 


Phitc  YIII. 


S«nmJ)     %.     l,>«ai,    fa^,wv\^,^)     iJ^iA) .  f)ou)u\.)    J)     SU.l. 


^a 

w^ 

~^ 

f 

9 

V 

~r" 

-\ 

.  .A 

History  of  the  Plow.  119 

breadth  of  the  intended  plow  at  the  heel,  c,  of  the  mould-l)oard, 
say  twelve  inches,  the  product  of  which  will  be  twenty-four  inches 
and  one  twelfth  (24yL))  and  add  to  this  product  one-tenth  thereof, 
which  will  make  the  distance  of  the  point  from  the  line  B  h 
twenty-six  inches  and  fifty-nine  one  hundred  and  twentieths  (-/./g). 

"  Having  determined  the  above  proportions,  I  build  up  a  block, 
represented  at  Figs.  2  and  3,  from  which  to  form  the  pattern,  and 
consistinor  of  a  series  of  flat  blocks  of  wood,  fflued  tosrether  to 
the  required  height  in  the  usual  manner  of  preparing  blocks  for 
making  plow  patterns. 

"  The  face,  A  a,  of  the  said  block  is  made  perpendicular  to  the 
base  and  corresponds  to  the  line  A  a  or  land  side  of  diagram 
Fig.  1;  the  end,  E  e.,  presents  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  base 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  face,  A  a,  and  corresponding  with  the 
line  E  e,  of  diagram  Fig.  1,  and  the  opposite  end  at  g  is  cut  to 
the  required  length  for  the  location  of  the  point  of  the  plow. 
On  the  under  side  or  face  of  this  block  I  transfer  the  two  lines 
B  h  and  D  d  and  the  diagonal  line  Ffivom.  diagram  Fig.  1,  as 
represented  in  the  dotted  lines.  Fig.  3.  And  I  also  mark  on  the 
face,  A  «,  and  also  on  the  opposite  face  of  the  said  black  lines, 
B  b  and  D  d  to  represent  the  planes  of  the  said  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  the  base,  as  represented  by  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  2. 

"I  divide  the  block  into  three  imaginary  divisions  by  three 
imaginary  planes  perpendicular  to  the  base,  and  corresponding 
with  the  three  lines  B  b,  D  d  and  E  e,  the  first  division  being  at 
the  line  D  d,  the  second  at  the  line  B  b,  and  passing  through  the 
heel  of  the  intended  mould-board,  and  the  third  at  the  line  E  e; 
I  then  draw  a  diagram.  Fig.  6,  with  a  base  line  representing 
the  base  of  the  plow  on  which  I  erect  a  perpendicular  line.  A;  a 
representing  the  land  side  or  line  A  «,  diagram  Fig.  1,  and  parallel 
therewith,  and  at  a  distance  therefrom  of  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
the  plow  from  the  heel  of  the  mould-board,  in  this  case  twelve 
inches,  draw  line  B  corresponding  with  the  line  B  b  on  diagram 
Fig.  1,  and  from  the  base  mark  on  the  said  line  twelve  divisions 
of  one  inch  each,  numbered  from  one  to  twelve.  And  I  then 
strike  the  arc  of  a  circle,  h,  on  a  radius  of  double  the  breadth  of 
the  intended  plow  at  the  heel  of  the  mould-board,  which  in  this 
case  will  be  twenty-four  inches,  the  said  arc  being  made  to  inter- 
sect the  line  B  b  at  the  base  and  at  the  twelfth  division  from  the 
base;  and  then  draw  lines  parallel  with  the  base  through  each  of 
the  points  of  the  twelve  divisions  to  intersect  or  cut  the  said  arc, 


120  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

the  said  lines  being  indicated  by  the  figures  numbering  the  several 
divisions  on  the  line  B  b.  The  arc  h  represents  the  concavity  of 
the  face  of  the  intended  mould-board  at  the  second  imaginary 
division.  And  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  said  arc  h  with 
the  base  in  the  position  of  the  heel  of  the  mould-board  and 
marked  c,  and  the  point  of  its  intersection  with  the  division  line 
12  determines  the  height  of  the  line  Ff  of  the  upper  edge  of 
the  working  surface  of  the  mould-board  and  perpendicularly  over 
the  heel  of  the  mould-board. 

"  On  the  said  diagram  Fig.  6,  I  draw  another  line,  E  e,  parallel 
with  the  line  B  b,  and  at  a  distance  therefrom  equal  to  the  breadth 
of  the  plow  at  the  heel  of  the  mould-board,  and  in  this  case 
twelve  inches.  I  then  draw  a  straight  line,  fff^,  from  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  line  A  a  with  the  base  to  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  division  line  4  with  the  arc  h,  and  project  it  beyond  the 
arc  h.  But  it  becomes  necessary  to  determine  the  height,  from 
the  base,  at  which  this  line  g  f^  will  intersect  the  plane  of  the 
third  division.  This  I  obtain  on  Fig.  5,  which  represents  the 
lines  on  the  face  of  the  mould-board  when  jjrojected  on  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  the  base.  On  this  figure  I  draw  the  three  par- 
allel lines  D  d,  B  b^  E  e  perpendicular  to  the  base,  and,  as  in 
the  other  figures,  indicating  the  first,  second  and  third  divisions, 
as  also  the  distance  of  the  pointy  of  the  plow  from  the  second 
division.  I  transfer  on  the  line  B  b  oi  this  Fisr.  5,  from  diagrrani 
Fig.  6,  the  several  divisions  numbered  from  one  to  twelve  of  the 
arc  h  of  Fig.  6,  and  I  then  draw  a  straight  line  from  the  point  g 
through  the  division  numbered  4  and  project  it  to  the  line  E  e, 
or  plane  of  the  third  division,  and  this  gives  the  inclination  of 
the  line  g  f^  to  the  base,  and  hence  the  height  of  its  intersection 
with  the  plane  of  the  third  division.  And  this  height  from  the 
base  I  transfer  to  diagram  Fig.  (3,  and  draw  through  it  a  line  M  ni 
parallel  with  the  base  until  it  intersects  the  line  g  f^  on  this  dia- 
gram Fig.  6,  and  from  this  point  of  intersection  I  describe  thi; 
arc  of  a  cirle  /  on  a  radius  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  plow  at 
the  heel  of  the  mould-board,  in  this  case  twelve  inches;  I  tiien 
describe  an  arc  of  a  circle,  k,  of  a  radius  of  four  times  the  breadth 
of  the  plow  at  the  heel  of  the  mould-board,  and  in  this  case 
forty-eight  inches,  making  the  said  arc  pass  through  the  points  of 
intersection  of  the  arc  /with  the  line  E  e,  and  the  line  g  f^  with 
the  line  Mm.  This  arc  of  a  circle,  k,  determines  the  concavity 
of  the  face  of  the  mould-board  at  the  plane  of  the  third  division, 


History  of  the  Plow.  121 

and  the  point  of  its  intersection  with  the  line  E  e  determines  the 
height  of  the  npper  edge  of  the  working  surface  of  the  mould- 
board  from  the  base.  And  having  thus  obtained  this  height  I 
transfer  it  on  to  the  line  E  e,  Fig.  5,  and  from  this  height  I  draw 
the  diagonal  line  F f'^'^  intersecting  the  division  12  on  the  line 
B  b  twelve  inches  from  the  base,  and  project  it  to  the  front  end 
of  the  plow.  The  inclination  of  this  line  to  the  base  line  gives 
the  inclination  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  working  surface  to  the 
base  of  the  plow,  its  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  land  side 
having  been  determined  by  the  line  Ff  on  diagram  Fig.  1.  The 
inclination  of  the  line  g  f^  to  the  plane  of  the  base  has  already 
been  determined,  and  to  determine  its  inclination  to  the  plane  of 
the  land  side,  I  delineate  on  diagram  Fig.  1  the  arc  h  of  Fig.  6, 
so  that  the  chord  of  the  arc  shall  be  parallel  with  the  line  A  a, 
and  intersecting  the  line  B  b  at  the  point  c,  or  heel  of  the  mould- 
board,  and  so  that  the  line  of  division  4  shall  coincide  with  the 
line  B  b,  the  convexity  of  the  arc  being  towards  the  line  A  a,  1 
then  draw  the  diagonal  line  gf^  from  the  point  g  of  the  plow  to 
the  line  E  e,  or  third  division,  and  intersecting  the  line  B  b  at 
the  point  of  its  intersection  with  the  arc  7i.  The  inclination  of 
this  line,  gf^,  to  the  plane  of  the  land  side,  so  determined  on 
diagram  Fig.  1,  I  transfer  to  Fig.  4,  which  represents  a  plan  view 
of  the  mould-board,  with  the  lines  projected  on  a  horizontal 
plane,  where  it  indicates  the  inclination  of  that  part  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  mould-board  to  the  plane  of  the  land  side,  along  the 
entire  length  of  the  mould-board,  the  inclination  thereof  to  the 
base  having  already  been  defined  and  represented  in  Fig.  5. 

"Having,  in  the  manner  above  described,  defined  and  located 
the  inclination  of  the  surface  of  the  mould-board  to  the  plane  of 
the  base  and  the  plane  of  the  land  side,  along  the  straight  line 
Ff^'^  or  upper  edge  of  the  working  surface,  and  along  the  straight 
edge,  ^/*,  from  the  point  of  the  plow  to  the  third  division,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  define  the  form  at  certain  distances  between 
these  two  lines  sufiiciently  near  to  each  other  that  the  workman 
may  practically  work  down  the  whole  surface  of  the  mould-board. 
I  have  found  that  by  lifting  the  form  on  the  lines  at  distances  of 
about  an  inch  apart,  that  the  workman  can  finish  the  residue  of  the 
surface  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  all  practical  purposes;  but, 
after  the  location  of  certain  lines  at  this  distance  apart,  by  the 
same  rules  these  divisions  can  be  multiplied  to  an  indefinite 
extent. 


122  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

"Referring  to  diagram  Fig.  6,  the  diagonal  lines  Ff^-  and  g  f^ 
will  be  found.  On  the  line  IlJ  el  divide  the  space  between  tlie 
points  of  its  intersection  with  the  arc,  7^,  and  the  line  M  m  into 
eight  equal  parts,  and  from  each  of  the  points  of  division  I  draw 
lines  parallel  with  the  base  to  intersect  the  arc,  h,  and  these  points 
of  intersection  I  mark  from  4  to  12,  as  the  divisions  are  marked 
on  the  arc,  /^,  of  the  second  division;  and  I  then  draw  diagonal 
lines,  /^,  f^^  p,  f^,  f^,  /^°,  f^\  passing  through  points  of  the 
divisions  correspondingly  numbered  on  the  arc,  h,  of  the  second 
division,  and  on  the  arc,  k,  of  the  third  division,  and  project  them 
until  they  intersect  the  first  division.  On  Fig.  5,  I  measure  the 
height  from  the  base  where  the  line  F  f^'^  intersects  the  line  D  d 
or  plane  of  the  first  division,  and  transfer  that  distance  or  height 
on  the  line  A  a  or  plane  of  the  land  side.  In  like  manner,  on 
Fig.  5,  I  measure  the  distance  or  height  from  the  base  where  tlio 
line  g  f^  intersects  the  line  D  d  or  plane  of  the  first  division,  and 
transfer  that  height  on  to  the  line  A  a,  of  Fig.  G,  from  the  base, 
and  draw  a  line,  N  n^  parallel  with  the  base  until  the  said  line 
intersects  the  diagonal  line,  g  y^,  and  this  point  of  intersection 
will  be  found  to  be  at  the  same  distance  from  the  line  A  a,  Fig.  1, 
as  the  point  of  its  intersection  of  the  said  line  g  f^  with  the  line 
D  d  or  plane  of  the  first  division  is  distant  from  the  plane  of  the 
land  side,  so  that  these  several  points  of  intersection  on  these 
several  figures  prove  each  other.  I  then  strike  an  arc,  o,  of  the 
same  radius  as  the  arc  k  (forty-eight  inches),  so  that  it  shall  inter- 
sect the  point  Avhere  the  line  F  f^"^  intersects  the  line  A  a,  and 
also  the  point  where  the  line  ^n  intersects  the  diagonal  \u\e g  f^; 
and  the  distance  between  the  lines  F  f^~  and  N  n,  where  these 
lines  cut  the  said  line  A  a,  1  divide  into  eight  equal  parts,  and 
from  these  divisions  I  draw  lines  parallel  with  the  base,  and  these 
several  lines  will  be  found  to  cut  the  several  diagonal  lines, /'^  to 
jf^^',  inclusive,  where  they  intersect  the  arc  o,  which  points  of 
intersection  on  the  said  arc,  o,  are  numbered  from  5  to  11,  as  tlio 
corresponding  divisions  are  marked  on  the  ares,  h  and  /,■,  of  the 
second  and  third  divisions. 

"  From  the  several  points  of  intersection  on  the  said  arcs  o  and  k 
of  the  first  and  third  divisions,  numbered  from  4  to  12  inclusive, 
I  draw  lines  perpendicular  to  the  base,  and  cutting  the  said  base 
lines;  and  the  divisions  thus  obtained  on  the  base  line  of  Fig.  6 
I  then  transfer  to  Fig.  4,  transferring  the  divisions  obtained  from 
the  arc  o  on  to  the  line  1)  d,  or  tii'st  division,  and  begiinu'ng  with  .  . 


History  of  the  Plow.  123 

number  4,  which  will  be  found  to  coincide  with  the  diagonal 
line  g  f^  and  ending  with  number  12,  which  in  both  figures  is  the 
IDoint  of  intersection  of  the  diagonal  line  Ff^'  with  the  line  ^  « 
or  plane  of  the  land  side.  And  the  divisions  obtained  from  the 
arc  k  or  third  division,  in  like  manner  transfer  to  the  line  E  e,  or 
third  division,  on  Fig.  4,  measuring  on  both  figures  fi-om  the  lines 
A  «,  or  plane  of  the  land  side,  and  the  division  number  4  will  be 
found  to  coincide  with  the  diagonal  g  f^,  and  the  division  num- 
ber 12  with  the  diagonal  line  Ff^'^  or  upper  edge  of  the  working 
surface  of  the  mould-board.  From  the  several  points  of  division 
thus  transferred  on  the  lines  D  d  and  F  e  of  Fig,  4,  except  the 
two  numbered  4  and  12,  on  which  the  lines  Ff^~  and  gf^  were 
previously  drawn,  I  draw  straight  lines  diagonal  to  the  plane  of 
the  land  side,  which  lines  are  marked  Ff^  to  11  inclusive.  And 
where  these  several  lines  cut  the  lines  B  b,  or  plane  of  the  second 
division,  the  distance  of  each  from  the  line  A  a,  or  plane  of  the 
land  side,  will  be  found,  on  measurement,  to  be  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  correspondingly  numbered  divisions  on  the  arc  h  of 
the  second  division  from  the  line  A  a  on  diagram  Fig.  6.  In  this 
way  the  inclination  which  the  surface  of  the  mould-board  makes 
to  the  plane  of  the  land  side  along  the  several  lines  gf^  to  Ff^' 
is  obtained,  defined  and  proved,  and  it  only  remains  to  olUain, 
define  and  prove  the  inclination  of  the  said  surface  to  the  base  of 
the  plow  along  the  said  lines.  This  is  done  by  transferrinjx  the 
divisions  on  the  arcs  o  and  k,  as  projected  by  lines  parallel  with 
the  base,  to  the  lines  A  a  and  F  e.  Those  on  the  line  A  a  of 
F'icr.  6,  I  transfer  to  the  line  D  d  of  Fig-.  5,  measurino;  both  fitjures 
from  the  base;  and  those  on  line  F  e  of  Fig.  6  to  the  correspond- 
ing line  F  e  of  Fig.  5,  measuring  both  figures  from  the  base. 
The  surface  of  the  mould-board  having  been  defined  at  the  first, 
second  and  third  divisions,  and  along  the  several  inclined  lines 
from  g  f^  to  F  f^',  the  workman  will  be  enabled  to  make  the 
surface  between  conform  properly  to  the  surface  at  these  lines; 
but  it  will  be  obvious  that  the  number  of  graduations  on  the  arc 
h  of  the  second  division,  instead  of  being  made  one  inch  apart, 
which  I  have  found  to  be  sufllicient  in  practice,  may  be  made  as 
much  less  than  an  inch  as  the  constructor  may  desire.  As  the 
form  below  the  line  gf'^  runs  into  the  cutting  edge  of  the  share 
it  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  constructor  to  determine  the 
form  of  that  part,  as  also  the  form  or  extent  of  the  surface  above 
the  line  of  the  ui)per  working  edge;  of  the  m()ul(l-lK)ard   and  the 


124  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

extent  of  the  wing  back  of  the  second  division,  as  it  may  be  cut 
short  of,  or  extended  back  of  the  third  division;  as  also  with  the 
amount  to  be  cnt  away  along  the  lower  edge  of  the  wing  back  of 
the  heel  of  the  mould-board. 

"  The  drawings  represent  that  form  of  the  auxiliarj^  parts  which 
I  prefer,  but  to  which  I  do  not  wish  to  be  nuderstood  as  confining 
myself.  The  points  where  the  several  lines  g  f^  to  F  f^'^  inter- 
sect the  vertical  plane  of  the  land  side,  and  marked  jj^  to  p^"^,  in 
Fig.  5,  will  give  the  general  configuration  of  the  line  of  the 
forward  cutting-edge,  termed  the  shin  of  the  plow.  The  mode 
of  procedure  which  I  have  adopted  for  working  out  the  block  of 
wood  to  the  form  required  for  making  a  pattern  is  as  follows:  1 
make  an  instrument  or  gauge,  Fig.  7,  consisting  of  a  plate,  q,  on 
a  base,  r,  at  right  angles  therewith,  and  one  edge  of  the  plate,  q, 
is  cut  to  a  form  fitting  the  concavity  oi  the  arc,  h,  Fig.  6,  when  the 
base,  r,  of  the  said  instrument  is  in  the  plane  of  the  base  of  the 
said  Fig.  6.  and  hence  this  curved  edge  will  be  the  proper  gauge 
to  determine  when  the  face  of  the  block,  Figs.  2  and  3,  is  cut  to 
the  required  concavity  in  the  plane  of  the  second  division.  I 
transfer  on  the  face  of  the  plate,  q,  of  the  said  gauge  up  to  the 
curved  edge  thereof,  the  graduations  or  divisions  of  the  arc,  h, 
Fig.  6.  When  the  plane  of  the  said  gauge  is  in  the  plane  of  the 
second  division,  B  b,  and  the  plane  of  its  base  in  the  plane  of  the 
base  of  the  block  and  the  angle,  c,  at  twelve  inches  from  the  face, 
A  a,  of  the  said  block,  or  vertical  plane  of  the  land  side,  then 
the  workman  has  obtained  the  required  concavity  of  the  face  of 
the  block  in  the  plane  of  the  second  division,  and  marks  thereon 
the  divisions  on  the  face  of  the  gauge  to  locate  the  several 
divisions,  numbered  from  1  to  12,  of  Fig.  6.  I  then  make  another 
gauge,  Fig.  8,  in  like  manner,  with  the  curved  edge  thereof  fitted 
to  the  concavity  of  the  arc  k,  Fig.  6.  While  the  base  of  the  gauge 
is  in  the  plane  of  the  base  of  Fig.  6,  and  on  the  face  of  thisgaugo, 
I  transfer  the  graduations  of  the  arc  k.  I  then  cut  into  the  face 
of  the  block,  in  the  direction  of  the  plane  of  the  third  division, 
until  the  curved  edge  of  the  said  gauge  touches  every  part  of  the 
said  surface,  and  its  vertical  edge,  £J  e,  is  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  plane  of  the  block  which  represents  the  land  side,  as  the 
line  ^  e,  Fig.  6,  is  from  the  line  A  a,  of  the  said  figure,  and  the 
base  of  the  gauge  is  in  the  plane  of  the  base  of  the  block.  This 
determines  the  requisite  concavity  of  the  block  in  the  plane  of 
the   third   division,  and  at  the   re(juircd    distance  from   the   land 


History  of  the  Plow.  125 

side,  and  I  then  transfer  on  the  surface  of  the  block  the  gradua- 
tions on  the  edge  of  the  gauge,  numbered  from  4  to  12. 

"  I  then  make  a  third  gauge,  Fig.  9,  in  like  manner  as  the  other 
two,  to  correspond  in  every  respect  witli  the  arc  o,  Fig.  6,  as  the 
other  gauges  were  made  to  correspond  with  the  arcs  h  and  A-.  I 
cut  and  mark  the  surface  of  the  block  on  the  plane  of  the  first 
division  in  the  same  manner  as  it  was  cut  and  marked  by  the 
other  gauges  in  the  plane  of  the  second  and  third  divisions,  and 
bearing  the  same  relation  to  the  face  of  the  block  which  repre- 
sents the  land  side  that  the  arc  o,  on  Fig.  6,  bears  to  the  line  A  a 
or  plane  of  the  land  side.  Having  thus  cut  away  the  surface  of 
the  block  to  the  required  concavity  in  the  jDlane  of  the  first, 
second  and  third  divisions,  and  marked  and  numbered  thereon  the 
several  graduations  to  correspond  with  the  graduations  on  the 
arcs  0,  h  and  h^  of  Fig.  6,  I  then  cut  away  the  surface  of  the 
block  in  the  direction  of  straight  lines,  so  that  a  straight  edge 
Avill  touch  along  the  entire  length  of  the  surface,  passing  through 
the  graduations  correspondingly  numbered  on  the  concavity  at 
the  three  divisions,  as  shown  on  Figs.  4  and  5  by  the  lines  g  f^ 
Ff^  to  Ff^^y  inclusive,  and  then  work  off  the  remaining  portions 
of  the  surface  between  and  beyond  these  lines  to  a  form  which 
will  correspond  therewith." 

Plows  had  previously  been  made  approaching  in  some  degree 
to  a  cylindrical  form,  but  Mr.  Joshua  Gibbs,  on  the  15th  of 
August,  1854,  patented  a  plow  which  strictly  conformed  to  this 
principle,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  extracts  from  his 
specification: 

"  Fig.  72  is  an  elevation  of  my  improved  plow,  showing  the 
working  side  of  the  mould-board.  Fig.  —  is  the  representation 
of  the  interior  of  a  cylinder  from  which  the  mould-board  was 
made.  Fig.  —  is  a  section  of  said  cylinder.  Fig.  — ,  the  mould- 
board  as  seen  when  looking  at  the  forward  end.  Fig.  — ,  the 
land  side  and  parts  connected  with  it.     *  *  *  * 

"  The  working  surface  of  the  mould-board,  A,  consists  of  about 
one-quarter  of  the  interior  surface  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  one  end 
of  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  — ,  and  a  section  of  the  interior 
in  Fig.  — .  If  the  plow  is  intended  to  turn  a  furrow  six  inches 
wide,  a  mould-board  made  from  a  cylinder  of  about  twelve  inches 
bore  is  desirable;  but  if  it  is  to  turn  a  furrow  twelve  inches 
wide,  the  mould-board  should  be  made  from  a  cylinder  with  a 
bore  of  about  two  feet.     As  these  plows  have  been  found  to  work 


126 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


best  when  the  length  of  the  mould-board  is  from  once  and  a  half 
to  twice  the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  the  cylinder  from  which  the 
mould-board  is  made,  and  the  form  of  its  exterior  edges  about  the 
same  as  represented  in  the  drawing,  the  mould-board  may  b.e 
fastened  to  the  other  parts  of  the  plow  as  may  be  convenient  or 
desirable,  taking  into  consideration  the  material  from  which  it  is 
made.  The  share  is  fitted  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board, 
and  its  point  is  fitted  to  a  recess  in  the  heel  of  the  coulter,  C. 


J^iff.  72. 


"It  has  been  found  that  when  the  top  of  the  land  side  was 
made  parallel  with  the  bottom,  and  a  wooden  standard  fitted  to 
it,  with  a  shoulder  fitted  against  the  top  edge  of  the  land  side, 
that  the  shoulder  upon  the  wooden  standard  is  soon  worn  oft'  as 
the  wood  wears  away,  so  as  to  leave  the  plow  defective  and  liable 
to  get  loose  and  shackling. 

"  To  remedy  this  defect,  and  improve  the  plow  in  this  respect. 
I  make  the  top  of  the  land  side,  D,  opposite  to  the  wooden  stand- 
ard, E,  at  an  angle  about  as  represented  in  the  drawing,  that  is, 
liigher  towards  the  forward  end  of  the  plow,  so  that  the  iron  land 
side  shall  protect  the  shoulder  of  the  wooden  standard,  E,  and 
prevent  it  from  being  worn  off,  so  as  to  preserve  a  shoulder  upon 
the  standard,  E,  as  long  as  there  is  any  of  the  iron  of  the  angle, 
F,  remains  upon  the  land  side  to  press  against  it,  when  the  false 
coulter,  or  bolt,  G,  is  screwed  up  to  hold  the  parts  together." 
Claim — "  making  the  working  surface  of  the  mould-board  in  the 
form  of  a  hollow  cylinder;  the  centre  or  axis  of  said  cylinder 


History  of  the  Plow.  127 

being  parallel  or  nearly  parallel  horizontally  to  the  base  of  the 
mould-board  or  bottom  of  the  plow  substantially  as  described," 

In  1858,  H.  M.  Phitt  invented  a  plow  which  was  literally  a 
screw-auger.  It  had  wings,  and  a  pair  of  broad  wheels  which 
turned  an  axis  on  which  a  mitre  wheel  was  keyed,  which  phiyed 
in  a  pinion  upon  the  shaft  of  the  auger,  which  drew  the  slice 
backward  on  to  the  wings,  which  rolled  it  over  into  position. 
Wc  believe  this  has  not  been  successful  in  practice. 

M.  L.  Roberts,  of  Smithville,  Canada  West,  has  no  land  side, 
but  in  place  of  it  a  wheel  whose  plane  is  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees, 
and  the  mould-board  consists  of  vertical  rollers,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  diminish  the  friction  of  plowing. 

Chapman  &  Barnum  have  also  patented  a  device  for  diminishing 
the  friction  of  the  land  side,  which  consists  in  substituting  for  the 
ordinary  rear  wing  of  the  mould-board  a  revolving  body  what 
would  be  called  a  cone  if  its  sides  were  bounded  by  straight  lines. 
The  sections,  made  vertically  through  the  axis,  are  arcs  of  circles. 
The  small  end  of  the  cone  is  directed  downward  and  the  larger 
one  upward.  The  lower  end  of  the  axis  is  inserted  into  a  pro- 
longation of  the  shoe,  backward,  the  upper  one  being  inserted  in 
a  bar,  movable  laterally,  so  as  to  increase  or  diminish  the  angle  of 
the  axis,  at  pleasure,  with  the  plane  of  the  sole. 

We  have  not  tried  any  of  these  friction  expedients,  but,  from 
the  best  information  we  can  obtain,  they  are  illusory,  and  have 
never,  so  far,  been  practically  successful. 

In  September,  1863,  Mr.  Mead,  of  New  Haven,  obtained  a 
patent  for  a  plow,  the  share  and  mould-board  of  which  conform 
exactly  to  the  surface  of  a  frustum  of  a  cone,  as  shown  in  Fig.  73. 

We  have  now  passed  in  review  all  the  expedients  which  have 
been  devised  within  the  period  of  four  thousand  years  for  the 
improvement  of  the  plow.  We  do  not  flatter  ourselves  that  we 
have  seized  on  all  the  successive  steps  which  have  been  made  in 
the  construction  of  this  most  important  implement.  If  any 
attempt  has  been  made  to  write  a  connected  history  of  the  plow 
before  us,  we  have  not  been  able  to  find  it.  We  have  traveled 
through  a  field  hitherto  unexplored,  and  it  would  indeed  be 
wonderful  if  we  should  not  miss  some  of  the  objects  lying  in  our 
way. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  idea  of  the  plow  was  a  crooked 
stick,  of  which  various  forms  were  in  use.  Then  came  the  pro- 
vision of  an  iron  point  to  the  plow.    Up  to  this  time  the  crooked 


128 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


sticks  used  were  on  the  principle  of  the  double  mould-board; 
they  threw  off  the  earth  on  each  side.  The  next  step  was  to  hew 
off  one  side  of  the  stick,  so  as  to  throw  out  the  earth  only  on  one 
side,  approximating  to  a  single  mould-board.  Then  the  plow 
became  a  simple  wedge,  the  land  side  being  nearly  parallel  with 
the  line  of  the  plow's  motion,  the  other  moving  the  furrow  slice 
to  the  right,  but  leaving  the  furrow  standing  on  edge.  Then  the 
wedge  was  gradually  twisted  so  as  regularly  to  invert  the  furrow. 
Jefferson  and  Small  discovered  the  importance  of  straight  lines 
running  from  the  sole  to  the  top  of  the  share  and  mould-board. 


J^iff.  73. 


Colonel  Pickering  was  the  first  to  discover  the  importance  of  a 
straijrht  line  running;  from  the  front  to  the  rear.  Jethro  Wood 
discovered  that  all  the  lines  running  from  front  to  rear  should  be 
straight.  Mr.  Knox  first  discovered  a  method  of  laying  down 
all  the  lines  of  a  plow  on  a  plane  surface.  Mr.  John  Mears  was 
the  first  to  discover  the  importance  of  centre  draft,  and  pointed 
out  the  practical  means  of  attaining  it  by  the  inclination  of  the 
land  side  inward. 

Aaron  Smith  was  the  first  to  adopt  two  plows  to  work  well 
together,  one  of  which  threw  two  or  three  inches  of  the  surface 
into  the  bottom  of  the  preceding  furrow,  and  the  other  covered 
it  with  the  lower  earth. 

Finally,  Governor  Holbrook  has  invented  a  method  by  which 
plows  of  any  size  may  be  made  symmetrically,  either  convex  or 
concave,  in  such  a  way  as  to  insure  the  complete  pulverization  of 
the  soil. 

We  believe  that  we  have  been  the  first  to  announce  that  the 
great  object  in  all  plows  is  to  form  the  curve  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  all  the  parts  of  the  furrow  slice  to  travel  with  different 


History  of  the  Plow.  129 

velocities  in  order  to  produce  pulverization,  but  that  these  ditfer- 
ent  velocities  should  be  no  greater  than  is  required  for  the  disin- 
tegration of  the  soil,  in  order  to  avoid  an  unnecessary  expenditure 
of  power. 

In  vicAv  of  the  fact  that  the  plow  has  always  been  regarded  as 
the  basis  of  all  civilization  and  all  wealth,  it  may  well  excite 
astonishment  that  it  should  have  required  so  many  years  to  have 
made  the  few  successive  advances  which  we  have  just  detailed. 

We  can  only  account  for  the  apparent  anomaly  by  remembering 
that  very  few  of  the  gifted  minds  of  successive  generations  have 
devoted  their  attention  to  the  plow,  and  that  until  the  present 
time  there  has  been  no  clear  and  definite  idea  in  the  minds  of 
inventors  of  the  precise  objects  which  they  were  seeking  to 
accomplish. 

We  hope  it  wall  be  found  that  the  very  careful  and  accurate 
trials  with  superior  instruments  made  at  Utica,  will  have  the  eliect 
of  giving  more  definite  ideas  to  the  inventors  of  the  country,  and 
that  the  result  will  be  seen  in  a  more  rapid  series  of  improve- 
ments in  the  plow  in  the  next  five  years  than  has  been  accom- 
plished in  the  preceding  centuries. 

Just  as  the  manuscript  is  going  into  the  hands  of  the  printer 
we  have  received  a  pamphlet  giving  a  description  of  Dr.  Grant's 
new  invention  of  a  plow  for  deep  tillage. 

We  are  heartily  in  sympathy  with  the  objects  which  the  Doctor 
has  in  view,  but  as  we  have  never  seen  the  plow  nor  its  work  we 
can  give  no  intelligent  opinion  of  our  own  as  to  his  success  in 
practically  accomplishing  those  objects. 

We  give  the  drawings  and  description  from  the  pamphlet  as  a 
part  of  the  current  history  of  the  plow. 


Fig.  1  represents  the  lona  turning  plow,  which  has  been  fitted 
for  receiving  certaii?  additions  hy  wdiich  it  is  transformed  to  ari; 

y 


IBO 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


implement  of  entirely  new  character,  and  rendered  capable  of 
very  desirable  preparation  of  the  gronnd  l)y  deep  woriting.  The 
additions  are  very  readily  ap})lied  when  the  transformation  is 
reqnired,  and  as  easily  laid  aside  again  Avhen  it  is  wanted  for 
ordinary  work  without  impairing  in  any  degree  its  utility  or  con- 
venience. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  most  important  of  the  additions  for  the 
transformation  to  which  all  of  the  others  are  accessory  or  sup- 
plemental. This  consists  chiefly  of  an  inclined 
plane  or  share,  either  in  one  or  more  pieces,  as 
circumstances  may  determine.  This  arrangement 
has  a  corresponding  land  side,  to  Avhich  the 
original  gives  place  in  transformation.  There  are 
two  sizes  of  the  inclined  plane,  designated  as  No.  1  and  No.  2. 
The  latter  is  able  to  raise  its  slice  of  suljsoil  from  the  greater 
depth.  Each  size  of  the  inclined  planes  has  a  corresponding 
accessory  part  for  rendering  them  more  efficient  for  certain  pur- 
poses that  will  be  noted  in  the  account  of  the  operation  of  the 
implement.  There  are  also  two  supplementary  pieces  for  increas- 
ing the  width  of  the  mould-board  at  its  upper  edge,  the  wider  of 
which  is  used  for  the  deeper  working. 


JF'iff.  2. 


Fiff.  S. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  most  simple  form  of  the  Transformed  No. 
1,  having  the  narrow  supplemental  plate  and  the  No.  1  inclined 
plane  without  any  of  the  accessories,  all  of  which  are  important 
in  fitting  it  for  the  variety  of  uses  to  which  it  is  adapted.  These 
are  of  the  utmost  simplicity  in  their  manner  of  application,  are 
durable  in  wear,  and  not  liable  to  break  or  get  out  of  repair. 
These  plows  perform  easily  and  thoroughly  the  operation  of 
trench  plowing,  that  is  often  attemvjted  Hjut  always  with  a  very 


II f STORY  OF    THE  PlOW. 


131 


sniull  measure  of  siieecss)  l)y  drivijig'  large  plows  of  the  ordinary 
constructioti  twice  in  the  same  furrow.  The  inclined  plane  per- 
forms thoroughly  the  work  of  a  shovel  or  spade,  and  much  more, 
taking  up  the  subsoil  cleanly  from  the  bottom,  leaving  a  level 
floor,  finely  pulverizing  and  mingling  it  with  the  fertile  soil,  but 
placing  more  of  the  surface  soil  at  and  towards  the  bottom  than 
toward  the  top,  or  vice  versa,  as  may  be  desired,  mingling  manure 
also  most  intimately  throughout,  when  that  is  used. 


Fig.  4  represents  Great  Trench  Plow  No.  1.  It  cuts  a  furrow 
ten  inches  wide,  and  has  good  turning  power  for  any  thickness 
of  slice  not  exceeding  ten  inches,  and  is  calculated  for  any  depth 
not  greater  than  twenty  inches.     It  is  designed  for  heavy  soils. 


Fig.  5  represents  Great  Trench  Plow  No.  2,  which  is  designed 
for  moderately  adhesive  loams,  and  for  very  friable  sandy  and 
gravelly  soils,  and  will  do  the  work  well  two  feet  deep,  or  any 
less  that  may  be  required. 

Fig.  6  represents  a  great  Trenching  Plow  that  is  constructed 
for  working  in  loams  or  clays,  but  is  prepared  for  the  reception 
of  appliances  that  adapt  it  for  light  loams  or  the  most  crumbl\ 


132 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


gravels.  Its  gauge  is  for  less  depth  than  the  preceding,  Ijut  by 
the  assistance  of  the  appliances  it  may  be  titted  for  a  depth  of 
twenty  inches  or  more. 


J^/S^ 


Fig.  7  represents  a  larger  plow  of  tne  same  plan  as  the  pre- 
ceding, that  by  such  accessions  as  are  represented  in  the  cut  can 
be  regulated  for  any  kind  of  practicable  soil  and  for  any  depth 
between  sixteen  and  twenty-four  inches. 


J^i^.  7. 

Deep  working  maybe  divided  into  two  kinds  that  are  effectual, 
and  one  ineffectual.  The  two  effectual  kinds  may  be  designated 
by  the  terms  half -trenching  and  trendiing,  or,  for  marked  distinc- 
tion, thoroHcih-lrenching,  The  former  is  often  preparatory  to  the 
latter.  Ineffectual  deep-working  is  when  tillage  plows,  going 
dee])er  th;in  their  turning  gauge,  simply  raise  the  soil  to  let  it  fall 
back  as  if  nearly  undisturbed.  Trenching  (or  thorough-trenching) 
consists  in  reversing  the  two  strata,  that  is,  putting  the  upper 
fertile  portion  below,  and  lower  unfertile  portion  above,  the 
thickness  of  the  latter  being  determined  by  the  depth  of  working. 
For  convenience,  we  designate  these  strata  h^  the  terms  soil  and 
subsoil,  as  well  as  by  the  descriptive  terms  fertile  portion  and 


History  of  the  Plow. 


133 


mtftrtile  portion,  using  them  interchangeably,  as  may  seem  most 

convenient  or  applicable. 

When  pretty  deep  trenching  is  to  be  done,  the  labor  of  opening 

the  first  trench  is  considerably  greater  than  that  required  for  the 

succeeding  ones,  whether 
performed  with  spade  or 
plow,  but  particularly  so 


J^iff.  /. 


J^iff 


with   the    latter.     Fig.   1 
1  represents  a  trench  about 
nine  inches  deep,  through 
which   the    turning    and 
trench    plows    have  each 
passed,    and    the   raising 
capacity  of  the   latter  is 
^^^^^^^^^H  nearly  exhausted  by  the 
7i  bank.  By  strenuous  effort, 
H  six  inches  more  of  depth 
2.  might   be    accomplished, 

but  not  very  satisfactorily. 
To  enable  the  plow  to 
gain  nearly  the  requisite 
depth  in  this  first  trench, 
J,    I  =;:^H  the     bank,    A,    must    be 

removed  to  the  position 
represented  at  A,  Fig.  2. 
This  may  be  partially 
done  with  a  plow,  but 
must  be  completed  with 
spades  or  shovels,  when 
the  depth  represented  by 
p,  Fig.  3,  may  be  easily 
gained,  but  it  will  be 
di65cult  to  go  deeper  in 
the  trench  with  any  of 
the  plows  here  represent- 
ed. The  next  proceeding 
in  order  is  to  turn  over 
and  throw  down  into  the 
trench,  p,  a  slice  com- 
„.       _  posed  of  the  thickness  of 


I^iff.  3. 


jp'ig.  4.. 


134 


Report  on  Tbials  of  Plows. 


the    fertile    straciiin,  and 

as  wide  as  th.e  trench,  as 

^^  represented   at   C.      The 

1  next    step    is    to    raise  a 

;  slice  of  the  subsoil  of  any 


S=j^,--^j^  ;==^-==^  thickness    required,     not 


I^iff.  6. 


making  greater  depth 
than  twenty-one  inches, 
as  shown  at  D.  The  dart 
marked  eighteen  inches, 
by  error,  should  be  21. 
The  representation  in  Fig. 
5  is  of  Avork  done  in  ad- 
hesive loam,  and  shows 
^^^'  '^*  rather  the  working  of  the 

jilow  than  the  exact  appearance  of  the  trench,  that  never  being 
quite  so  clear  and  square  after  the  passage  of  the  plow,  as  is  here 
represented. 

In  very  unadhesive,  gravelly  or  sandy  soils  the  appearance  will 
be  as  represented  in  Fig.  6.  Debris,  as  at  H,  occurs  in  gravels, 
consisting  in  part  of  the  falling  of  the  edge  of  the  land  side  bank, 
and  in  part  of  the  falling  back  of  the  subsoil  slice.  This  is  often 
in  about  the  proportions  required,  and  then  only  the  passage  of 
the  transformed,  with  its  peculiar  grinding  action  is  required  to 
perfect  the  operation.  If  a  larger  admixture  of  the  surface  soil 
is  required  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  a  small  slice  of  it  is  easily 
thrown  down  by  a  small  plow  drawn  by  one  horse  before  the 
passage  of  the  transformed. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  leave  as  clean  a  furrow  as  is  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  7,  as  the  ground  from  both  sides  will  fall  in  and 
fill  the  furrow.  It  is  rather  intended  to  represent  the  actual 
working  of  the  plow  at  the  depth  of  two  feet.  These  plows  are 
worked  with  two  pairs  of  strong  oxen. 


Objects  to  be  Accojijplished  by  Plowing.  135 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ON  THE  OBJECTS  TO  BE  ACCOMPLISHED  BY  PLOWING. 

Before  we  can  judge  of  the  best  form  and  arrangement  of  the 
plow,  we  must  lirst  clearly  comprehend  the  objects  sought  to  be 
accomplished  by  plowing  land. 

In  general  we  may  say  that  we  seek  in  plowing  laud  to  cause 
it  to  yield  a  greater  amount  of  crops;  but  this  general  answer  is 
insufficient  for  our  purpose.  We  want  to  know  ivh^/  plowing  the 
laud  makes  it  more  fertile  before  we  are  in  a  position  to  know 
which  of  the  various  forms  of  the  plow  is  best  adapted  to  pro- 
mote the  desired  fertility. 

If  we  find  that  two  or  more  forms  of  the  plow  are  equally/ 
adapted  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  land,  the  question  then 
arises,  which  of  them  can  be  worked  with  the  greatest  economy? 
This  question  involves  several  elements.  We  are  to  inquire 
which  of  them  can  be  worked  with  the  least  expenditure  of 
animal  power.  It  has  been  proved  by  the  trials  instituted  by  our 
own  Society,  by  the  Highland  Society  of  Scotland,  and  by  the 
Koyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  that  some  forms  of  the 
plow  can  open  a  given  sized  furrow  with  thirty  per  cent  less  of 
power  than  others,  or  what  is  nearly  the  same  thing,  two  horses 
will  do  as  much  as  three.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the 
farmer  using  the  one  will  find  farming  a  remunerative  occupation, 
while  the  farmer  that  uses  the  other  will  carry  on  his  business  at 
a  loss.  Another  question  which  must  be  answered  under  this 
head  of  inquiry  is,  which  of  the  plows  will  wear  the  longest?  It 
is  well  known  that  there  are  great  differences  in  this  respect,  some 
lasting  five  times  as  long  as  others.  The  points  of  many  plo  wh 
now  in  market  wi)l  only  last  for  a  single  day.  Again,  some  plows 
can  be  advantageously  worked  by  much  less  skillful  workmen 
than  others,  and,  of  course,  unskilled  laborers  can  always  be 
obtained  at  a  lower  rate  of  compensation  than  the  skilled  classes. 
Finally,  there  are  some  plows  which  can  be  worked  with  far  les;s 
labor  by  the  operative,  which  is  an  advantage  that  no  good 
farmer  will  overlook.  The  plow  which  combines  with  the  lowest 
price  the  greatest  number  of  these  advantages  is  clearly  to  be 
taken  as  the  cheapest  plow. 


136  Report  ox  Trials  of  Plows. 

Let  us  first  endeavor  to  underwtimd  how  the  ploAv  makes  land 
more  fertile.  To  accomplish  this  we  must  know  what  fertility  is, 
and  what  causes  it. 

All  plants  whatever  have  their  origin  in  a  minute  germ  whose 
weight  is  exceedingly  small  compared  with  the  weight  of  the 
fully  developed  plant.  The  germ  has  no  creative  power  what- 
ever; it  can  only  assimilate  other  matter  with  its  own  substance, 
and  the  whole  of  the  extra  weight  of  the  mature  plant  consists 
of  foreign  matter  which,  by  a  curious  but  not  unintelligible 
chemistry,  the  germ  has  assimilated  with  its  own  tissues  and  made 
a  part  of  its  own  substance. 

The  substances  thus  assimilated  are  numerous,  varying  in  differ- 
ent plants,  but  all  derived  originally  from  the  rains  and  dews, 
from  the  atmosphere  and  the  soil. 

The  compounds  derived  from  air  and  water  are  called  organic; 
those  derived  from  the  soil  are  called  inorganic.  Gum,  sugar, 
and  woody  fibre  are  examples  of  the  former;  lime,  potash,  iron 
and  saline  matters  are  examples  of  the  latter. 

The  amount  of  inorganic  matter  in  plants  varies  from  one  to 
twelve  per  cent  of  their  whole  weight,  according  to  their  differ- 
ent natures;  100  pounds  of  wheat  contains  1.18  pounds  of  ash 
or  inorganic  matter;  100  pounds  of  rye  contains  1.04  pounds;  100 
pounds  of  barley  contains  2.35  pounds;  100  pounds  of  oats  con- 
tains 2.58  pounds;  100  pounds  of  wheat  straw  contains  3.51 
pounds  of  ash;  100  pounds  of  rye  straw  contains  2.79  pounds; 
100  pounds  of  barley  straw  contains  5.24  pounds;  100  pounds 
of  oat  straw  contains  5.74  pounds. 

If  we  have  an  acre  of  hmd  which  yields  us  1,500  pounds  of 
wheat  and  2,000  pounds  of  straw,  it  has  taken  from  the  soil  about 
eighty-eight  pounds  of  mineral  matter. 

An  acre  of  land  which  bears  a  crop  of  oats,  consisting  of  one 
ton  of  straw  and  forty  bushels  of  grain,  will  abstract  one  hundred 
and  fifty-six  pounds  of  mineral  matter  from  the  soil. 

The  mineral  matter  absorbed  by  growing  plants  does  not  exist 
in  the  soil  in  unlimited  quantities,  but  in  definite  quantities  that 
can  be  exactly  ascertained  if  we  resort  to  the  proper  methods  of 
inquiry.  When  we  have  ascertained  the  absolute  amount  of 
mineral  matters  required  by  plants  in  the  soil,  if  we  divide  the 
whole  number  of  pounds  of  these  matters  in  an  acre  of  soil  by 
eighty-eight,  we  shall  know  the  exact  numlier  of  crops  of  wheat 
that  can  be  taken  from  an  acre;  and  if  we  divide  it  by  one  hundred 


Objects  to  be  Accomplished  by  Plowing.  137 

and  fifty-six,  we  shall  know  the  number  of  oat  crops  that  can  be 
taken. 

When  this  number  of  crops  has  been  taken  from  the  soil,  it  is 
evident  that  its  capacity  for  producing  wheat  or  oats  is  exhausted- 
and  can  never  be  restored  until  the  missing  mineral  is  replaced 
from  some  foreign  source. 

In  practice,  however,  thei  soil  becomes  incapable  of  yielding 
either  wheat  or  oats  long  before  the  supply  of  mineral  matter  is 
exhausted.  A  wheat  plant,  for  instance,  may  absolutely  starve 
for  want  of  ammonia  in  a  soil  which  an  exact  chemical  analysis 
shows  to  be  superabundant  in  ammonia,  or  it  may  perish  for  lack 
of  phosphate  of  lime  in  a  soil  replete  with  that  substance;  or  it 
may  be  unable  to  procure  a  due  supply  of  silicic  acid  from  a  soil 
consisting  of  pure  sand. 

Every  farmer  knows  that  if,  after  it  appears  to  be  exhausted  of 
its  mineral  matter,  the  soil  is  allowed  to  rest,  exposed  to  the  action 
of  frosts,  rains,  dews  and  sun-light,  it  will,  after  the  lapse  of  a 
certain  time,  recover  its  fertility;  the  phosphate  of  lime,  silicic 
acid  and  carbonate  of  potash,  in  which  it  seemed  utterly  deficient, 
have  now  been  restored  to  it  by  the  operation  of  its  own  internal 
processes,  and  not  supplied  to  it  from  without. 

Again,  it  is  found  that,  on  many  kinds  of  laud,  very  small  crops 
are  obtained  at  the  first  plowing;  but  that,  at  every  successive 
plowing,  the  crop  increases.  It  would  seem  from  this  that  plants 
increased  in  magnitude  just  in  proportion  to  the  diminution  of  the 
supply  of  food. 

An  attentive  examination  of  these  apparent  anomalies  will  lead 
us  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  causes  of  fertility  in  a  soil. 

First — Soils  may  contain  a  superabundance  of  mineral  matters, 
though  they  are  so  unevenly  distributed  that  a  larger  part  of  the 
soil  is  so  deficient  in  them  that  it  may  be  absolutely  barren. 
Thus,  if  we  measure  oif  ten  square  feet  at  one  corner  of  an  acre, 
and  cover  it  thickly  with  lime,  the  opposite  corner  of  the  acre 
receiA^es  no  benefit  from  the  application;  there  is  too  much  lime 
in  one  plat  and  none  in  the  other.  If  the  arable  surfaces  of  the 
two  soils  are  mixed  together,  both  will  be  benefited  and  both 
will  be  more  fertile.  Or  we  may  suppose  that  a  soil  deficient  in 
phosphate  of  lime  has  a  bone  buried  in  it.  After  a  certain  time 
it  will  be  found  that  some  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  and  gelatine, 
with  its  included  nitrogen,  is  dissolved,  and  the  particles  of  earth 
in  contact  with   the  bone  are  saturated  with  the  solution,  and 


138  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

cannot  take  up  any  more.  If  we  now  remove  the  bone  and  biuy 
it  in  unsaturated  earth,  another  portion  will  be  dissolved,  and  the 
soil  contiguous  to  it  will  be  saturated.  We  may  thus,  by  suc- 
cessive removals  and  burials  of  the  bone  until  it  is  wholly  dissolved, 
render  many  times  more  soil  fertile  than  if  it  had  been  left  steadily 
in  one  place.  There  is  no  soil  known  through  which  the  fertile 
matters  are  evenly  diffused,  and  hence  benefit  must  always  result 
from  mixing  together  the  fertile  and  unfertile  portions. 

This  is  one  of  the  objects  sought  to  be  accomplished  by  plow- 
ing land;  it  is  because  the  spade  accomplishes  this  more  perfectly 
than  any  form  of  plow  yet  known  to  us,  that  so  much  larger 
crops  can  be  obtained  when  that  method  of  tillage  is  used. 

Plows  differ  very  widely  in  their  power  to  mix  soils  together. 
Those  which  invert  the  furrow  completely  hardly  mix  it  at  all. 
Those  which  leave  the  furrow  at  an  angle  of  45  deg.  mix  it  more 
intimately.  Those  which  take  a  narrow  furrow  do  it  still  more 
completely  than  those  that  take  a  broad  one,  and  those  that  turn 
a  furrow  in  two  successive  portions,  as  the  sod  and  subsoil  plow, 
intermingle  the  particles  of  the  soil  more  perfectly  than  when  it 
is  turned  in  one  mass. 

It  is  obvious,  from  these  considerations,  that  by  bringing  into 
contact  with  each  other  the  particles  of  soil  which  had  previously 
>>een  separated,  we  increase  its  fertility,  and  therefore  those  kinds 
of  plows  which  accomplish  this  object  most  perfectly,  other  things 
being  equal,  are  to  receive  the  preference. 

Second — A  very  little  reflection  will  satisfy  a  former  that  he 
may  have  abundant  elements  of  fertility  in  his  soil,  yet  he  will 
derive  no  benefit  from  them,  because  they  are  locked  up  by  affini- 
ties which  the  rootlets  of  the  plant  cannot  overcome.  Thus,  one 
ton  of  farm  yard  manure  may  be  spread  over  a  given  area  of  soil, 
and  one  ton  of  coal  spread  over  an  equal  contiguous  area.  The 
plants  growing  in  the  soil  covered  withhnanure  will  be  abundant  ly 
supplied  with  ammonia,  while  those  growing  in  the  soil  covered 
with  the  coal  will  receive  none,  and  cease  to  grow  in  conse- 
quence. If  now  we  ascertain  by  analysis  the  amount  of  ammonia 
contained  in  each,  we  find  that  one  ton  of  the  former  contains 
17,4  pounds  of  ammonia,  while  a  ton  of  the  latter  contains  47. G 
pounds,  or  nearly  three  times  as  much  as  the  manure  contained. 

The  important  practical  question,  therefore,  for  the  farmer  to 
ask  is,  not  how  much  plant  nulriniont  is  contained  in  his  soil,  but 


Objects  to  be  Accomplished  by  Plowing.        '     139 

liow  much  is  there  which  is  in  such  Vi  physical  and  chemical  con- 
dition as  to  be  available  by  the  rootlets  of  the  growing  plant. 

As  the  success  of  the  practical  farmer  depends  almost  entirely 
upon  a  knowledge  of  these  principles,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give 
a  brief  explanation  of  them,  especially  as  it  is  necessary  to  com- 
prehend them,  if  we  nre  to  attain  to  clear  understanding  of  the 
theory  of  the  plow. 

Mr.  Way  filled  several  glass  vases,  furnished  with  stop-cocks 
at  the  bottom,  with  dry  soils  of  various  kinds;  he  then  poured 
into  each  of  them  the  drainage  water  from  a  barn  j^ard  loaded 
with  stercoraceous  and  saline  matters  which,  after  it  had  filtered 
through  the  soils,  was  drawn  off  through  the  stop-cock.  That 
which  had  passed  through  the  stiffest  clay  came  off  limpid  and 
apparently  pure,  the  taste  being  almost  like  that  of  rain  water; 
that  which  passed  through  a  very  sandy  soil  was  but  slightly 
changed  in  taste  or  appearance.  The  power  of  a  soil  to  absorb 
the  manurial  matters  seemed  to  depend  upon  the  relative  amount 
of  aluminous  matter  contained  in  it,  those  having  the  greatest 
abundance  absorbing  most,  those  having  the  greatest  amount  of 
sand  having  the  least.  It  was,  however,  established  beyond  a 
doubt  that  all  soils  had  a  peculiar  power  of  absorbing  manurial 
matters,  which  could  not  bo  separated  by  the  action  of  water  or 
by  any  other  way  than  by  the  absorbent  action  of  the  rootlets  of 
a  growing  plant. 

Dr.  Vcelcker  has  followed  up  these  investigations  with  great 
assiduity  and  success.  He  saturated  various  kinds  of  soils  with 
a  solution  of  caustic  ammonia,  containino-  23.24  o-rains  of  ammonia 
to  the  imperial  gallon,  and  ascertained  the  amount  of  ammonia 
that  was  absorbed  by  each  kind  of  soil.  He  thus  found  that  3,000 
grains  of  a  calcereous  clay  absorbed  2,758  grains  of  ammonia 
from  14,000  grains  of  the  solution.  From  the  same  quantity  a 
fertile  loamy  soil  abstracted  2,604  grains;  3,000  grains  of  a  stiff 
clay  soil  absorbed  2,262  grains  of  ammonia;  3,000  grains  of  a 
sterile  sandy  soil  retained  3,228  grains  of  the  solution;  3,000 
grains  of  the  soil  of  a  rich  pasture  took  up  1,728  grains  of 
ammonia. 

He  next  agitated  these  soils,  which  had  been  saturated  with 
ammonia  water  of  the  above  mentioned  strength,  with  a  solution 
of  ammonia,  which  was  twice  as  strong  as  the  preceding,  and 
found  that  they  now,  curiously  enough,  absorbed   very  nearly 


140  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

equal  portions  of  ammonia.     Tlius,  the  total  amount  of  ammonia 
absorbed  by  1,000  grains  of  soil  was,  in  the  case  of  the 

1.  Calcareous  soil 1.5193  grains  of  ammonia. 

2.  Fertile  loamy  soil , 1.5363      " 

3.  Clay  soil 1.1240      " 

4.  Sterile  sandy  soil 1.5220      " 

5.  Pasture  land 1.5217      " 

Dr.  Voelcker  next  proceeded  to  verify  these  results  by  repeat- 
ing the  experiments  in  another  form.  He  made  four  solutions  of 
ammonia  of  varying  degrees  of  strength,  and  used  the  same  soil — 
a  stiff  calcareous  chiy — in  all  his  experiments. 

Per  1,000  grains. 

Solution  No.  1  contained  44.38  grains  of  ammonia  per  gallon,  or. .    .634 

No.  2        "         21.28      "  "  "  ..   .304 

No.  3        "         12  32      "  "  "  ..   .176 

No.  4        "  6.16      "  "  "  ..   .088 

The  soil  was  saturated  with  each  of  these  solutions,  when  it 

was  found  that  1.000  grains  of  the  soil  thus  absorbed  in 

No.  1 1 .32  grains  of  ammonia. 

No  2 64      '•  " 

No,  3.... 26       "  " 

No.  4 10      " 

These  experiments  show  conclusively  that  all  soils  have  the 
power  of  absorbing  ammonia  from  its  solutions;  that  no  soil  can 
abstract  all  the  ammonia  from  a  solution;  that  all  soils  can  take 
up  a  greater  relative  amount  of  ammonia  from  strong  than  from 
weak  solutions  of  ammonia;  hence  a  soil  which  had  absorbed  as 
much  ammonia  as  it  would  from  a  weak  solution  took  up  a  fresh 
quantity  of  ammonia  when  it  Avas  brought  into  contact  with  a 
stronger  solution. 

Dr.  Voelcker's  experiments  further  showed  that  soils  were 
equally  disposed  to  appropriate  ammonical  salts  as  they  were  to 
absorb  ammonia  itself. 

He  next  endeavored  to  ascertain  how  far  the  soils  were  disposed 
to  part  with  the  ammonia  thus  absorbed  to  the  rain  water  which 
percolates  through  them.  In  order  to  accomplish  this,  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  a  soil,  saturated  with  ammonia,  was  well  shaken  in 
7,000  grains  of  distilled  water.  It  was  allowed  to  settle  for  three 
days,  when  the  clear  liquor  was  carefully  decanted,  and  tiie 
amount  of  water  contained  in  it  exactly  ascertained.  The  soil 
thus  washed  was  again  shaken  in  a  well  stoppered  bottle  with 
7,000  o-niins  of  fresh  distilled  water,  and  settled  and  decanted 


.2-36  grs. 

ammonia. 

.642    " 

.610    " 

.622    " 

.120    " 

.193    " 

.228    " 

Objects  to  be  Accomplished  by  Plowing.  141 

as  before.     This  was  repeated  seven  times  successively,  with  the 
following  results: 

First  washing,  removed  by  7,000  grains  of  water . 

Second     " 

Third       " 

Fourth     " 

Fifth 

Sixth       " 

Seventh  " 

Total.... 2.651    " 

Thus  we  see  that  after  seven  successive  washings  with  7,000 
grains  of  water,  or  49,000  grains  of  water  in  all,  only  2.651  grains 
of  ammonia  was  obtained  from  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  soil.  It 
had  previously  absorbed  4.655  grains  of  ammonia,  and  there  were 
therefore  2.004  grains  left  in  it  after  this  very  thorough  washing. 

It  is  very  clear  from  this  experiment  that  the  power  of  soils 
to  remove  ammonia  from  solutions  is  much  greater  than  their 
property  of  yielding  it  again  to  water. 

Prof.  Way  discovered  that  soils  not  only  possessed  the  power 
of  separating  ammonia,  but  likewise  other  bases  from  their  solu- 
tions, and  they  held  them  after  being  so  absorbed  Avith  very  great 
tenacity.  Thus,  100  grains  of  clay  soil  taken  from  the  plastic 
clay  formation  in  England  absorbed  1.050  grains  of  potash  from 
a  solution  of  caustic  potash  containing  one  per  cent  of  the  alkali. 
It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  liquid  was  not  in  this  case 
filtered  through  the  soil,  but  only  left  in  contact  with  the  cold 
solution  for  twelve  hours. 

Prof.  Way  has  further  shown  that  soils  have  the  ability  to 
separate  the  alkaline  bases  from  the  acids  with  which  they  arc 
combined.  He  found  that  when  saline  solutions  were  slowly 
filtered  through  soils  five  or  six  inches  deep,  the  liquids  which 
passed  through  were  deprived  of  their  alkaline  bases,  as  potash, 
soda,  ammonia  and  magnesia,  and  only  the  acids  were  to  be  found 
in  combination  with  some  other  base.  Thus  when  muriate  of 
ammonia  was  filtered  through  the  soil  the  ammonia  was  removed, 
and  a  corresponding  quantity  of  lime  in  combination  with  muri- 
atic acid  was  found  in  the  filtered  liquid.  In  the  same  way 
sulphate  of  potash  was  deprived  of  its  base,  and  the  liquid  col- 
lected gave  sulphate  of  lime  on  analysis. 

Prof.  Liebig  has  attempted  to  show  that  this  power  of  soils 
which  enables  them  thus  to  attract  manurial  substances  from  their 


142  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

solutions  is  unalogous  to  that  by  which  charcoal  separates  coloring 
matters  and  odoriferous  matters  from  their  combinations.  This  is 
known  to  be  partly  mechanical  and  partly  chemical.  The  chemi- 
cal force,  like  that  which  causes  the  solution  of  substances  in 
water,  is  very  weak;  it  attracts  substances  to  itself,  but  does  not 
produce  any  change  whatever  upon  the  character  of  the  sub- 
stance. The  coloring  or  the  odorous  matters  are  held  in  contact 
with  the  pores  of  the  charcoal  just  as  coloring  matters  adhere  to 
the  fibres  of  cotton  or  wool  quite  unchanged  in  their  nature. 
Neither  powdered  pit  coal  nor  the  hard,  glassy  charcoal  from 
sugar  or  blood  have  much  power  to  attract  coloring  matters  from 
their  solutions,  while  porous  blood  or  bone  charcoal  possesses  this 
property  in  a  very  high  degree,  and  among  wood  charcoals,  those 
which  have  the  greatest  amount  of  capillary  porosity. 

It  is  just  so  with  soils,  those  which  have  the  greatest  amount 
of  capillary  porosity  will  condense  the  greatest  amount  of  manu- 
rial  substances  on  their  internal  surfaces;  will  retain  them  longest 
against  the  adverse  solvent  action  of  water,  and  will  give  them 
out  most  readily  to  the  rootlets  of  the  growing  plant.  A  mass 
of  adhesive  clay  will  absorb  but  a  very  slight  amount  of  availaljle 
manure,  but  if  this  same  mass  is  rendered  friable  by  mechanical 
processes  its  power  of  absorption  is  amazingly  increased.  In 
view  of  what  has  been  stated,  it  is  very  clear  that  plowing  land 
increases  its  fertility  in  one  Avay  by  increasing  its  porosity  by 
pulverization. 

Again,  many  manurial  substances  exist  in  the  soil  which,  being 
insoluble,  exercise  no  action  on  the  growth  of  plants,  and  con- 
tribute nothing  to  their  nutrition;  l)ut  by  the  slow,  though  regular 
action  of  the  frosts  and  the  rain,  the  air  and  the  sunshine,  these 
insoluble  and  refractory  compounds  are  reduced  to  a  soluble  state, 
whicli  are  appropriated  and  held  in  deposit  by  the  soil  to  the 
credit  of  the  next  cultivated  crop.  This  routine  explains  the 
Avell  known  fact  that  soils,  which  have  been  cropped  to  the  very 
verge  of  barrenness,  will  recover  their  fertility  if  allowed  to 
remain  long;  enoug-h  under  the  action  of  these  climatic  influences 
to  saturate  the  soil  with  the  necessary  plant  food  which  they  have 
unlocked  from  their  chemical  combinations  and  given  to  the  soil 
in  a  proper  physical  condition. 

These  changes  are  brought  about  much  more  rapidly  when 
certain  mechanical  changes  of  condition  are  wrought  upon  the 
soil. 


Objects  to  be  Accomplished  by  Plowing.  143 

Carbonic  acid  is  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  agents  employed 
in  bringing  the  insoluble  inorganic  matter  in  the  soil  into  that 
physical  condition  when  they  become  available  as  plant  food;  in 
order  that  this  acid  may  be  formed,  it  is  essential  that  the  car- 
bonaceous matters  in  the  soil  should  be  brought  into  direct  contact 
■with  the  atmosphere  from  which  they  procure  the  oxygen  neces- 
sary to  convert  them  into  carbonic  acid. 

So  long  as  staofnant  water  remains  in  the  soil,  or  so  lono;  as  it 
is  in  a  dense  and  very  compact  condition,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
carbon  in  the  soil  to  be  converted  into  acid. 

A  supply  of  available  phosphatic  salts  is  essential  for  the 
growth  of  most  cereal  plants,  but  these  salts  often  exist  in  great 
profusion  in  the  soil  without  contributing  in  any  way  to  the  nutri- 
tion of  plants,  because  they  are  in  an  insoluble  condition.  If 
now  water  charged  with  carbonic  acid  is  allowed  to  circulate 
through  the  hard  phosphatic  nodules  a  portion  of  them  will  be 
dissolved  by  the  acid  and  diflused  by  the  water  among  the  pores 
of  the  soil  where  they  will  be  fixed  in  readiness  for  the  demands 
of  the  growing  plants.  In  this  case  we  see  another  way  that  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  increased  by  pulverization,  because  the  air 
is  admitted  to  the  soil,  which  becomes  the  agent  of  converting 
the  carbon  existing  in  it  into  carbonic  acid,  which  in  its  turn  ren- 
ders many  substances  which  were  previously  useless  very  efficient 
in  promoting  the  growth  of  plants. 

Mr.  Way  shows  that  the  agents  which  exercise  the  greatest 
power  in  retaining  manurial  substances  in  physical  combination 
with  the  soil  are  the  double  silicates,  which  we  will  endeavor  to 
explain  briefly,  as  their  recent  investigation  has  probably  pi-e- 
vented  a  large  proportion  of  the  users  of  the  plow  from  becoming 
fully  acquainted  with  their  properties. 

If  pure  sand  or  powdered  quartz  be  fused  with  lime,  alumina 
or  some  other  alkali,  they  become  chemically  united,  and  are 
known  as  silicates.  Thus,  silica  combined  with  potash  is  called 
silicate  of  potash;  with  ammonia,  silicate  of  alumina,  etc.  These 
substances,  under  favorable  circumstances,  are  very  prone  to  unite 
together.  Thus,  silicate  of  alumina  and  silicate  of  lime  are  often 
found  united  together  as  one  well  marked  substance  havino; 
definite  characters.  These  new  compounds  are  called  double 
silicates.  They  have  the  power,  in  a  remarkable  degree,  of 
exchanging  bases  in  a  certain  prescribed  order.  Thus,  when  the 
double  silicate  of  aluniinu  and  soda  is  digested  with  a  solution  of 


144  Report  on  Tbials  of  Plows. 

some  lime  salt,  a  new  compound  is  formed,  in  which  the  soda  is 
I'eplaced  by  lime;  in  the  same  way  the  lime  may  be  supplanted 
by  magnesia,  and  the  latter  by  potash. 

It  is  very  instructive  to  observe  that  these  successive  replace- 
ments take  place  in  a  regular  and  unvarying  order,  which  Prof. 
Way  has  determined  as  follows:  Soda,  lime,  magnesia,  potash, 
ammonia. 

Thus,  in  the  double  silicate  of  alumina  and  soda,  the  soda  may 
be  replaced  by  lime,  the  lime  by  magnesia,  the  magnesia  by 
potash,  and  the  potash  by  ammonia;  but  this  cannot  take  place  in 
the  reverse  order.  Ammonia  will  dispossess  any  of  the  articles 
which  precede  it  on  the  list;  but  none  of  these,  either  singly  or 
in  combination,  has  the  power  to  dispossess  ammonia.  The  value 
of  these  double  silicates  is  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  placed 
above.  The  double  silicate  of  soda  is  less  valuable  than  the 
double  silicate  of  lime;  the  double  silicate  of  lime  is  less  valu- 
able than  the  double  silicate  of  magnesia;  the  double  silicate  of 
magnesia  is  less  valuable  than  the  double  silicate  of  potash,  and 
the  latter  is  less  valuable  than  the  double  silicate  of  ammonia.' 
Thus  we  see  the  admirable  provision  of  Divine  Providence,  that 
the  more  valuable  compound  shall  alwaj's  have  the  power  of  dis- 
placing the  less  valuable,  while  the  inferior  is  restrained  by 
impassible  barriers  from  supplanting  the  superior  compound. 

When  we  learn  that  the  formation  and  the  transformation  of 
these  double  silicates  from  a  lower  degree  into  a  higher  one  is 
g]-eatly  promoted  by  a  porous  condition  of  the  soil,  we  see  an 
additional  reason  for  the  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil  by 
the  plow. 

The  distance  to  which  the  roots  of  a  plant  will  extend  when 
there  is  no  physical  obstruction  to  their  progress  through  the  soil 
is  far  greater  than  is  usually  supposed  by  those  who  have  not 
actually  witnessed  their  extension.  We  have  seen  the  roots  of 
Indian  corn  extending  seven  feet  downward;  the  roots  of  lucerne 
will  penetrate  fifteen  feet:  onions  will  run  downward  three  feet 
where  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  favors  the  extension  of 
their  range.  It  is  obvious  that,  as  the  nutritive  matters  in  the 
soil  cannot  travel  to  the  root,  the  latter  must  therefore  go  to  the 
former;  and  the  fjirther  the  root  extends,  the  greater  the  amount 
of  food  which  the  plant  can  obtain,  and  the  greater  must  be  its 
growth  and  nutritive  capacity.  The  roots  of  plants  always  develop 
themselves  in  the  direction  of  least  resistance.     If  the  roots  of 


Objects  'lo  be  Accomplished  by  Plowing.  145 

a  plant  have  a  hard,  impervious  soil  on  their  right  and  a  porous 
soil  on  their  left,  the  roots  will  all  be  directed  from  the  right  to 
the  left.  The  growth  of  roots  takes  place  by  the  addition  of  new 
cells  to  their  outer  extremities.  The  newly  added  cell  must 
therefore  push  the  earth  before  it  by  a  force  somewhat  greater 
than  the  cohesive  force  of  the  soil  which  it  penetrates.  The  force 
required  for  this  purpose  exhausts  the  vital  force  of  the  plant.  A 
thoroughly  porous  soil  therefore  relieves  this  exhaustion  and 
economizes  the  vital  force  which  is  then  directed  to  some  other 
point.  Plants  differ  greatly  in  their  power  of  forcing  their  roots 
into  the  soil.  Wheat  and  barley  both  radicate  feebly  and  will 
hardly  enter  a  stiff  soil,  while  buckwheat  will  penetrate  it  readily. 
The  roots  of  quack  grass  {triticum  repens)  will  force  their  way 
triumphantly  through  the  stiffest  clays,  while  the  feebler  roots  of 
timothy  [p/tleum  pratense)  will  scarcely  penetrate  them  at  all. 

Jethro  TuU,  to  whom  practical  husbandry  is  so  much  indebted, 
ascertained  the  range  of  porous  land  required  by  each  kind  of 
plant  in  the  following  manner: 

In  the  midst  of  hard,  impervious  land  he  dug  a  trench  twenty 
yards  long,  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  wedge,  the  transverse 
width  of  the  narrow  end  being  two  feet,  and  the  broad  end  being 
twelve  feet  wide.  In  the  fine,  loose  earth  of  this  trapezoid  he 
planted  along  the  middle  line,  at  distances  of  one  yard  apart,  the 
plants  whose  root  range  he  desired  to  ascertain.  The  plant  one 
yard  from  the  narrow  end  was  smaller  than  that  which  was  two 
yards  from  it,  and  this  latter  was  smaller  than  that  which  was 
three  yards  distant.  When  he  found  the  point  where  the  plants 
ceased  to  enlarge  and  remained  of  the  same  size  until  that  which 
was  nearest  to  the  widest  end,  he  believed  that  he  had  the  meas- 
ure of  the  normal  length  of  the  root  of  that  plant;  thus  when 
the  trapezoid  was  planted  with  turnips  each  turnip  was  larger  as 
it  receded  from  the  narrow  end  until  the  fifteenth,  from  thence  to 
the  twentieth  the  turnips  were  of  equal  size.  Measuring  laterally 
from  the  fifteenth  turnip,  he  found  that  the  range  of  loose  soil 
was  four  feet,  which  he  therefore  concluded  was  the  natural  length 
of  the  turnip  root. 

When  the  first  settlers  of  Ohio  began  to  cultivate  the  rich 
valley  of  the  Scioto,  they  subjected  it  to  a  very  imperfect  and 
.shallow  cultivation;  two  or  three  inches  was  the  utmost  depth  of 
the  plowing,  but  such  was  the  great  natural  fertility  of  the  land 
^^hat  the  ci'ops  of  Indian  corn  averaged  seventy  bushels  to  the  acre. 
10 


146  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Successive  crops  of  corn  have  been  annually  taken  from  the  soil 
ever  since,  but  the  average  product  has  run  down  to  about  forty- 
bushels  to  the  acre.  In  the  year  1862  a  large  field  was  plowed 
with  the  sod  and  subsoil  plow  to  the  full  depth  of  eight  inches. 
The  result  of  this  experiment  was  that  the  land  produced  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  bushels  to  the  acre,  while  the  skim  plowed  land 
contiguous  to  it  yielded  but  forty  bushels. 

These  facts  show  an  additional  answer  to  the  question,  "How 
does  plowing  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil  ?"  They  tell  us 
very  clearly  that  it  is  by  aifording  facilities  to  the  extension  of 
the  roots,  and  thus  extending  the  range  of  pasture  for  the  plants. 

The  answers  already  given  by  no  means  exhaust  the  question. 
There  are  still  many  important  uses  of  plowing  which  are  yet 
undescribed.  The  germination  of  seeds  requires  seclusion  from 
light;  they  must  therefore  be  placed  beneath  the  surface.  They 
also  require  the  presence  of  atmospheric  air;  without  it  the  radicle 
will  not  enter  the  soil  nor  the  plumule  jDrotrude  into  the  air;  nor 
Avill  the  starchy  matters  stored  up  in  the  cotyledons  be  trans- 
formed into  sugar  for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  plant.  Pul- 
verization of  the  soil  is  therefore  essential,  that  the  seeds  may  be 
regularly  secluded  from  the  light;  but  in  such  a  way  that  the  air 
can  penetrate  very  freely  to  them.  These  conditions  are  com- 
pletely fulfilled  when  the  land  is  properly  plowed. 

Stagnant  water  in  the  soil,  by  cutting  off  the  access  of  air  to 
the  roots  of  plants,  prevents  their  nutrition  and  consequently 
their  growth.  Deep  plowing  diminishes  this  evil  by  permitting 
the  water  to  penetrate  deeper  into  the  ground. 

Warmth  of  the  surface  soil  is  essential  to  the  growth  of  crops. 
When  water  lies  upon  the  surface,  it  is  taken  up  again  into  the 
air  by  evaporation,  which  causes  the  absorption  of  an  immense 
amount  of  sensible  heat  which  it  renders  latent.  The  cooling  of 
surfaces  by  evaporation  is  made  practically  familiar  to  us  when- 
ever we  wash  our  hands  or  wet  our  heads.  Deep  plowing  and 
thorough  pulverization,  by  permitting  the  water  to  sink  into  the 
ground,  diminishes  the  amount  of  evaporation  from  the  soil,  and 
thus  prevents  the  temperature  of  the  surface  from  being  lowered. 

The  exhalation  of  moisture  from  plants  into  the  air  is  very 
great.  In  the  experiments  very  carefully  made  by  Hales,  he  found 
that  a  sunflower  threp  and  a  half  feet  high,  with  a  superficial  area 
of  5.616  square  inches,  perspired  at  the  rate  of  from  twenty  to 
thirty  ounces  in  twelye  hours,  or  seventeen  times  more  than  a  man 


Objects  to  be  xiccoMPLiSHED  by  Plowing.  147 

would  do  under  similar  circumstances.  A  vine  with  twelve  square 
feet  of  foliage  exhaled  at  the  rate  of  five  or  six  ounces  a  day.  An 
acre  of  Indian  corn,  having  1500  plants  on  an  acre,  would  exhale 
about  one  ton  of  water  in  a  day.  If  this  moisture  is  supplied  by 
the  roots  from  the  reservoirs  of  water  in  the  ground  as  fast  as  it 
is  exhaled,  no  mischief  is  done;  on  the  contrary,  the  plant  is 
benefited  by  the  increased  vital  action  which  ensues.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  supply  from  the  ground  is  less  than  the  amomit 
evaporated,  the  plant  withers  and  finally  dies. 

Every  farmer  is  familiar  with  the  curling  of  the  corn  leaves 
when  the  evaporation  is  most  rapid  under  the  fierce  heats  and  the 
blue  skies  of  midsummer,  especially  when  the  surface  is  baked 
hard.  He  also  knows  that  the  true  antidote  to  this  condition  is  a 
thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil.  When  this  is  eflTected,  the 
stores  of  moisture  in  the  depths  of  the  earth  are  pumped  up  by 
the  capillary  attraction  of  the  interstices  of  the  soil,  and  the 
balance  between  supply  and  demand  is  once  more  restored. 

Soil  in  a  finely  divided  state  radiates  heat  much  more  rapidly 
than  when  its  surface  is  hard  and  baked;  it  will  therefore  cool 
more  rapidly.  Dew  is  deposited  in  the  clear  nights  most  copi- 
ously on  those  bodies  which  are  relatively  colder  than  the  sur- 
rounding air.  It  follows  from  this,  that  when  two  contiguous 
acres  of  land  are  planted  with  an  equal  number  of  corn  plants, 
they  will  both  exhale  the  same  amount  of  moisture  from  their 
leaves;  but  if  the  soil  of  one  of  the  acres  is  thoroughly  pulverized, 
and  the  other  is  hard  baked,  vastly  more  of  the  daily  exhalation 
will  be  returned  to  the  pulverized  soil  than  to  the  hard  one,  on 
account  of  its  superior  radiant  powers.  The  pulverized  soil  will 
thus  be  supplied  with  water  at  the  expense  of  the  other. 

No  soil  can  produce  maximum  crops  of  any  kind  where  the 
food  of  the  desired  kind  of  plant  is  taken  up  and  appropriated 
by  weeds.  It  is  therefore  one  of  the  prime  objects  of  agriculture 
to  destroy  them,  and  at  the  same  time  to  utilize  them  so  as  to 
make  them  restore  to  the  desired  plant  that  nutriment  of  which 
they  have  already  robbed  it.  Other  things  being  equal,  that  plow 
is  best  which  most  completely  buries  the  weeds  growing  on  the 
surface  and  secures  their  decomposition,  so  that  the  roots  of  the 
growing  plant  can  avail  themselves  of  the  food  stowed  away  in 
the  cells  of  the  weeds. 

We  have  now  completed  the  task  we  proposed  to  ourselves,  by 
showing  all  the  objects  which  it  is  proposed  to  accomplish  by  the 


148  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

use  of  the  plow  in  order  that  we  may  be  enabled  to  ascertain 
what  form  of  the  plow  is  most  likely  to  secure  the  ends  which 
we  have  in  view.     They  are: 

Fh'st — To  pulverize  the  soil  with  a  view  to  promote  those  chem- 
ical transformations  which  will  unlock  the  food  of  plants  from  its 
combinations  with  unassimilable  elements  and  put  it  into  such  a  phy- 
sical condition  as  will  make  it  accessible  to  the  rootlets  of  the  plant. 

Second — To  pulverize  it  with  a  view  to  facilitate  the  formation 
of  the  double  silicates. 

Third — That  the  roots  may  freely  permeate  the  soil  in  all 
directions,  thus  increasing  the  range  of  their  pasture. 

fourth — To  promote  the  germination  of  seeds. 

Fifth — To  get  clear  of  stagnant  water  from  the  surface. 

Sixth — To  prevent  the  refrigeration  of  the  soil  by  evaporation. 

Seventh — To  secure  the  return  of  the  water  evaporated  by  the 
plant  in  the  form  of  dew. 

Eighth — To  destroy  the  weeds  in  the  soil. 

Ninth — To  utilize  them  and  convert  them  into  food  for  plants. 

All  plows  known  to  us  press  downw^ard  upon  the  subsoil  with 
a  weight  proportioned  to  the  depth  of  the  furrow  slice  and  the 
density.  This  downward  action  combined  with  the  sliding  action 
of  the  shares  has  a  necessary  tendency  to  pack  the  subsoil  and  to 
polish  the  surface.  This  effect  is  cumulative,  and  every  succes- 
sive plowing  increases  the  evil  until  the  bottom  of  the  furrow 
becomes  so  dense  that  neither  rain  nor  air  nor  the  roots  of  plants 
can  possibly  penetrate  beneath  it.  The  spade  avoids  this  diffi- 
culty. Hence,  other  things  being  equal,  a  plow  which  leaves  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  in  the  same  state  in  which  the  spade  leaves 
it  would  have  a  very  decided  preference. 

Guided  by  the  principles  which  we  have  now  so  fully  explained, 
w^e  have  drawn  up  a  series  of  practical  directions  which  will  be 
found  inserted  in  the  Programme,  page  3,  under  the  head  of 
"Duties  of  Judges,"  which,  if  they  have  been  fnlly  carried  out  in 
the  spirit  in  which  they  were  devised,  we  believe  will  settle  con- 
clusively nearly  all  the  questions  in  practical  plowing  which  have 
heretofore  been  left  undetermined. 

We  have  not  sought  to  give  a  complete  and  exhaustive  enumera- 
tion of  all  the  objects  which  the  plow  is  designed  to  accomplish, 
such  as  the  mellowing  of  the  soil  by  frost  and  the  destruction  of 
insects,  but  only  those  which  involve  the  peculiar  form  of  the 
the  plow  and  the  principles  of  its  construction. 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.         149 
CHAPTER  VII. 

ON  SOME  OF  THE  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS  IN  PLOWS  AND  PLOWING. 

FULVERIZATION. 

As  stated  iu  our  chapter  "On  the  objects  to  be  accomplished 
by  plowing,"  our  convictions  are  strong  that  the  primary  object 
of  the  process  is  to  mellow  the  ground  by  direct  pulverization. 
We  have  never  seen  this  stated  as  desirable  in  any  of  the  English 
books  or  periodicals  to  which  w^e  have  had  access.*  They  all 
design  to  effect  the  pulverization  of  the  soil  mediately  by  plow- 
ing, but  they  always  expect  to  effect  it  immediately  through  the 
harrow.  They  must  first  turn  over  the  soil,  laying  it  in  sharp  and 
well  defined  ridges,  mathematically  parallel  to  each  other.  But 
this  darling  sharpness  of  ridge  cannot  be  obtained  unless  the  slice 
is  turned  over  with  the  least  possible  disturbance  of  the  relations 
of  its  particles  Avith  each  other;  hence  a  structure  which  would 
effectually  pulverize  the  soil  and  injure  the  sharpness  of  the  crest 
would  so  offend  the  superstitious  prejudices  of  English  plowmen 
that  not  one  could  be  sold  in  any  of  the  markets  of  the  kingdom. 

This  superstition  was  transmitted  to  America,  and  until  very 
recently  the  lines  of  American  plows  have  been  formed  on 
English  principles.  The  importance  of  thorough  pulverization 
was  recognized  l)y  American  farmers  at  a  much  earlier  period 
than  it  was  in  England;  but  as  they  had  not  thoroughly  studied 
the  relations  of  the  lines  of  the  plow  to  the  comminution  of  the 
furrow  slice,  they  Avere  unable  to  realize  their  ideal  of  perfection 
in  practice. 

Let  us  suppose  a  series  of  sheets  of  pasteboard  to  be  superim- 
posed as  at  A,  Fig.  74.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  edges,  a  h,  are 
in  a  straight  line,  at  right  angles  to  the  line  c  a.  If  we  now  press 
a  thumb  on  cZ,  and,  with  the  other  hand,  raise  up  the  corners  of 
the  sheets  at  h,  the  edges  of  the  sheets  will  no  longer  be  in  a  line 
at  right  angles  with  the  line  of  the  upper  sheet,  but  the  upper 
sheets  will  have  advanced  beyond  the  loAver  ones.     Before  the 

♦Perhaps  we  should  except  "Talpa"  from  this  remark,  but  the  author  of  that  work 
did  not  expect  to  pulverize  the  soil  by  a  plow,  hut  with  some  instrument  which  should 
throw  out  the  earth  like  a  woodchuck. 


150 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


flexure,  the  edge  5,  touched  the  dotted  line  at  e;  it  is  now  sep- 
arated from  it  by  the  space  b  e,  and  each  successive  sheet  is  seen 
to  be  in  advance  of  the  one  beneath  it.  To  produce  this  successive 
advancement  of  the  upper  sheets,  each  must  have  moved  over  the 
surface  of  the  other.  Every  plowman  *  knows  that  the  furrow 
slice  has  a  certain  amount  of  elasticity,  that  is,  the  parts  may  be 
displaced  to  a  certain  extent,  and  then,  on  the  removal  of  the 
displacing  forces,  they  will  return  to  their  former  position.  This 
elasticity  varies  with  the  nature  of  soil.  In  some  the  slightest 
displacement  will  cause  a  permanent  disruption;  in  others  it  will 
stretch  considerably  before  disruption  takes  place.  The  bending 
A  n    upward,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  is  pre- 

cisely what  is  done  by  the  plow,  the 
point  of  the  plow  being  directly  beneath 
cZ,  and  the  point,  b,  resting  on  the 
mould-board  a  little  to  the  right  of  the 
shin.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  soil  of 
the  furrow  slice,  E  ^s  the  most  elastic, 
and  that  the  distance,  b  e,  is  just  sufii- 
J^iff.  74.'  cient  to  overcome  that  elasticity,  then 

it  is  evident  that  every  soil  whatever  will  be  split  horizontally 
into  flakes  at  its  lower  edge  by  a  plow  having  that  elevation.  We 
say  at  its  lower  edge  because,  as  the  upper  edge  does  not  move 
through  a  space  equal  to  b  e,  and  as  that  is  the  precise  point 
where  the  elasticity  of  the  slice  is  overcome,  any  less  motion  will 
fail  to  split  the  layers.  It  follows,  from  this  reasoning,  that  every 
kind  of  soil  should  have  a  mould-board  specially  adapted  to  it,  if 
we  would  obtain  the  greatest  economy  of  power,  because  the 
more  blunt  is  the  entering  wedge,  the  greater  will  be  the  draught; 
and  it  would  be  uneconomical  to  use  an  entering  wedge  sufficiently 
blunt  to  flake  up  a  stiff"  clay  for  a  light  loam  where  a  much  moi-e 
acute  angle  will  suflice.  Still,  if  economy  of  power  is  not  an 
object,  a  plow  which  will  separate  the  most  tenacious  soils  longi- 
tudinally will  be  sufficient  for  all  soils  that  are  less  so. 

Our  object  is,  as  we  have  said,  to  pulverize  the  soil;  but  split- 
ting it  longitudinally  is  not  pulverizing  it.  To  accomplish  this 
object  we  must  split  it  in  other  directions.  Jethro  TuU,  as  we 
have  stated,  invented  a  plow  with  four  coulters,  figured  in  Plate 
I,  which  made  four  vertical  sections  through  the  slice.     This  can 


*See  Tull's  remarks,  page  18. 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.         151 


be  better  done  by  a  proper  twist.  If  the  furrow  slice  is  twisted 
with  a  force  insufficient  to  overcome  its  cohesion  it  will  assume 
the  form  (Fig.  75)  represented  in  section  at  B.     The  radius,  a  b, 


J^ig.  76. 

is  shorter  than  a  c,  hence  the  arc  at  h  is  smaller  than  that  at  c;  but 
the  lines  before  flexure  were  equal  in  length,  therefore  while  the 
inner  circle,  h  h  i\  forms  a  complete  semicircle  the  outer  line, 
f  G  d,  falls  short  of  being  a  semicircle  by  the  distances  d  e  and  gff, 
and  the  lines  d  i  and  /  A,  which  were  before  parallel  with  each 
other,  now  when  bent  into  the  curve  form  an  acute  angle.  Sup- 
pose the  twist  is  increased  until  the  force  of  cohesion  is  over- 
come, the  section  now  breaks  asunder  as  at  6  c  cZ,  &c.,  the  fracture 
being  greatest  at  the  outer  circle  and  growing  smaller  as  it 
approaches  the  inner  one;  the  edges^  li  and  i  d  are  again  parallel, 
and  are  in  fact  in  the  same  straight  line.  We  have  thus  accom- 
plished by  a  twist  applied  at  the  right  point  all  and  more  than 
Tull  accomplished  by  his  four  coulters. 

We  have  now,  as  shown  in  the  furrow  slice.  Fig,  76,  by  a  proper 
2^    b  adjustment  of  the  enter- 
ing wedge  of  the  plow, 
split  it  into  layers   on 
the  face,  c  d,  the  fissures 
J'^iff.  70.  runninor  through  to  the 

opposite  face,  and  also  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the  twist  we 
have  split  it  on  the  fjice,  a  b,  through  to  the  bottom.  These 
fissures  are  seen  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles  on  the 
end,  a  c. 

By  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  wing  of  the  mould-board  we 
may  break  the  slice  in  still  another  direction.  Suppose  the  wing 
of  the  mould-board  were  to  be  turned  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  ascending  slice,  as  in  Fig.  77.  Then  the  ascend- 
ing slice,  e  d  f  c,  would  be  compelled  to  change  its  direction 
from  the  line  e  d  to  the  line  a  b;  but  to  accomplish  this  the 
particle  of  earth  at  d  would  move  through  the  arc  b  d,  while 
the  particle  at  f  would  only  move  round  the  centre.  Now  it  is 
evident  that  since  each  particle  in  lli<^  dotlcd  line  y  (Z  is  moving 


152 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


J^iff.  77. 


with  a  different  velocity  the  continuity  of  the  \\xvQ,fd  will  be  bro- 
ken, and  a  fracture  will  occur  at  the  point  y*  represented  by  b  f  d, 
and  it  is  also  evident  that  every  successive  line  of  the  slice  e  dfc 
0^  L  will  be  subject  to  a  similar 

fracture  on  passing  the  point 
\  J  f.     It  is,  however,   unneces- 
sary to  have  so  large  a  frac- 
ture; as  the  slightest  fissure 
is   all    that  is    required,   we 
may  therefore  very  greatly 
diminish   the    angle    of   the 
wing  with  a  great  saving  of         ^i'^'  78. 
the   power  required,  as  at  Fig.  78,  where  b  f  d,  the  angle  of 
fracture,  is  seen  to  be  very  greatly  reduced,  although  the  actual 
pulverization  is  quite  as  well  performed  as  it  was  with  the  much 
larger  angle,  b  f  d,  in  Fig.  77. 

We  have  now,  in  addition  to  the  longitudinal  fissures  shown  in 
Fig.  74,  on  the  sides,  a  b  and  c  d,  another  series  of  transverse 
fractures  across  the  face,  c  cZ,  Figs.  75  and  77,  made  by  the  lines 
of  the  plow,  which  must  necessarily  break  up  the  slice  into  fine 
particles,  which  will 
admit  air  and  moist- 
ure, and  facilitate  the 
chemical  transforma- 
tions in  the  soil  which 
we  have  shown  to  bp 
so  essential  for  the  d 
velopment  of  its  late  i  t 
fertility. 

It  is  shown  in  the 
History  of  the  Plow, 
which    we     have     at- 


T%^  ij-  s  b 


mmmmmmm  nii 

.iiiiiiii         i=- 

ll'^'i 

it    W' 

( 1  1  \1\  b 

1 1 

J^/</'  79. 


tempted  to  sketch,  that  the  efforts  of  all  the  inventors  who 
have  applied  their  skill  to  the  improvement  of  the  moul  I- 
board,  have  been  directed  to  the  formation  of  a  perfectly  curved 
or  twisted  wedge  which  should  be  entirely  regular  in  its  foi-in- 
ation,  that  is,  that  the  third  line  should  depart  from  the  piano 
of  the  second  precisely  as  far  as  the  second  does  from  the 
plane  of  the  first,  and  that  the  fourth  should  depart  from 
the  third  precisely  as  much  as  the  third  does  from  the  second, 
and   so   on.     This    is   csixMially    line    <>('    ihe    plows   which    are 


Pb ACTIO AL  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.         153 

avowedly  formed  on  mathematical  principles,  as  Jefferson's,  Ste- 
phens', Rhani's  and  Knox's.  Indeed,  their  object  in  invoking  the 
aid  of  mathematical  principles  was  to  iusnre  this  perfect  regu- 
larity in  the  twiwt  of  the  mould-board. 

If  we  are  correct  in  the  })rinciples  laid  down  above,  the  makers 
of  plows  have  been  in  error  with  regard  to  the  desirableness 
of  a  uniform  twist  in  the  mould-board.  We  grant  that  where 
economy  of  power  is  the  sole  object,  the  twist  must  be  regular 
and  gentle;  but  where  the  primary  object  is  to  mellow  the  soil, 
then  irregularity  in  the  lines  becomes  indispensable. 

We  have  shoAvn  that,  in  order  to  secure  thorough  pulverization, 
the  surface  of  the  mould-board  must  be  adapted  to  fracture  the 
slice  in  three  several  directions.  It  is  therefore  plain  that  there 
must  be  three  points,  at  least,  where  the  twist  must  be  intensified 
so  as  to  insure  the  desired  result,  and  at  these  points,  at  least,  the 
regularity  of  the  curve  must  be  interrupted,  so  as  to  overcome  the 
maximum  elasticity  of  the  soil. 

The  conclusion  to  which  these  views  lead  us  is,  that  the  best 
plow  must  have  irregular  lines  of  curvature  to  an  extent  which 
will  insure  the  fracture  of  the  furrow  slice  in  three  directions; 
but  the  irregularity  should  never  be  greater  than  will  accomplish 
this  result,  as  all  excess  will  be  a  waste  of  power. 

We  have  spoken  repeatedly  of  the  elasticity  of  the  earth  of 
which  the  furrow  slice  is  composed,  especially  when  its  sui-face  is 
covered  with  a  tough  sod.  In  order  to  measure  the  extent  of 
this  elasticity  we  inserted  two  wooden  wedges,  a  and  b  (Fig.  79), 
at  right  angles  to  the  land  side  of  the  furrow;  when  the  plow, 
which  was  running  twelve  inches  deep,  came  up  with  them  at  the 
zero  line,  the  wedges  ceased  to  be  at  right  angles  with  the  land 
side,  but  made  an  acute  angle  with  it,  and  the  wedge  a'  was  seven 
inches  in  one  instance  in  advance  of  the  ^vedge  b' ,  and  this  w^as 
the  measure  of  the  elasticity  of  the  slice,  as  the  two  wedges 
resumed  their  former  relative  positions  when  the  furrow  was 
completely  turned  over.  There  is  considerable  difliculty  in 
making  the  experiment,  as  the  slice  is  generally  bi-oken  before  it 
arrives  at  the  zero  line.  We  repeated  it  many  times  unsuccess- 
fully. We  found  the  stretch  of  the  land  side  of  the  furrow  twice 
to  be  six  inches,  and  only  once  did  it  cohere  until  it  was  stretched 
seven  inches. 


154  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

on  the  draught  of  plows. 

In  our  inquiries  respecting  jjlows,  their  draught,  or  the  power, 
which  must  be  applied  in  order  to  enable  them  to  perform  the 
work  required  of  them,  is  an  element  of  the  greatest  interest,  and 
our  inquiries  naturally  resolve  themselves  into  the  following 
questions: 

First — What  power  is  required  to  plow  a  furrow  of  a  given 
size  with  the  same  plow  in  soils  differing  in  their  cohesive  proper- 
ties? 

Second — What  is  the  power  required  to  draw  different  plows 
through  the  same  soil  with  furrows  of  equal  size? 

Third — What  proportion  of  the  power  required  by  a  plow  is 
used  by  the  sole?  What  by  the  land  side?  What  by  the  share? 
What  by  the  coulter?     What  by  the  mould-board? 

Fourth — Does  the  wheel  add  to  or  diminish  the  draught  of  the 
plow? 

Fifth — Does  increased  speed  produce  an  increase  of  traction, 
and  if  so,  in  what  proportion? 

It  was  our  intention  to  have  ansAvered  all  these  questions  by 
varied  and  frequently  repeated  experiments,  but  when  we  Avere 
read}'  to  enter  upon  this  branch  of  the  investigation,  we  found 
that  the  Express  company,  in  consequence  of  a  misunderstanding 
of  their  instructions,  had  shipped  the  dynamometer,  and  we  were 
therefore  unable  to  carry  out  our  intentions.  A  few  experiments 
were,  however,  made  which  we  shall  report  in  this  connection. 
We  would,  however,  in  view  of  the  great  importance  of  the  sul)- 
ject,  strongly  recommend  to  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Society  to  carry  out  these  experiments  next  spring  in  the  most 
thorough  and  satisftictory  manner. 

Such  trials  as  have  been  made  by  various  experimenters  at 
different  times  and  in  various  places  which  have  come  to  our 
knowledge  we  have  brought  together  here  for  the  information  of 
'.hose  who  are  interested  in  such  subjects. 

The  most  instructive  series  of  experiments  on  these  poinis 
which  have  been  made  hitherto  are  those  of  Mr.  Pusey,  Avhich 
are  detailed  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  Eo}'al 
Agricultural  Society.  The  following  experiments  give  some 
approximations  to  an  answer  to  the  first  question,  viz:  "What 
power  is  required  to  plow  a  furrow  of  a  given  size,  with  the  same 
plow,  in  soils  differing  in  their  cohesive  properties?"  Fergusson's 
swing  plow,  (liking  a  furrow  five  inches  deep   and   nine  inches 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.         155 

wide,  showed  a  draught  in  a  sandy  loam  of  266  pounds;  a  loamy 
sand,  266  pounds;  a  moory  soil,  322  pounds — increase,  21  per 
cent;  a  strong  loam,  490  pounds — increase,  84  per  cent;  a  blue 
clay,  700  pounds — increase,  163  per  cent. 

In  our  trials,  Collins  k  Co.'s  steel  plows,  with  a  furrow  twelve 
inches  wide  and  twelve  inches  deep,  showed  a  draught  in  an 
indurated  clay  soil,  mixed  with  coarse  gravel,  of  613  pounds; 
an  unctuous  tough  clay  of  705  pounds,  the  increase  being  15  per 
cent.  Holbrook's  plow,  taking  the  same  furrow,  and  in  the  same 
soil,  showed  a  draught  in  clay  and  gravel  of  615  pounds;  unctuous 
clay  of  671. pounds;  difference  9  per  cent. 

From  these  data  it  is  obvious  that  the  draught  of  plows  taken 
ill  (liferent  soils  cannot  be  compared  with  each  other  since  the 
diflerence  in  the  power  required  to  overcome  their  cohesion  has, 
by  actual  trial  been  found  to  extend  to  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  per  cent,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  future  trials  may 
disclose  even  wider  diiferences  than  this. 

In  answer  to  our  second  question,  "  What  is  the  power  required 
to  draw  difierent  plows  through  the  same  soil,  with  furrows  of 
equal  size,  we  have  the  following  experiments  by  Mr.  Pusey. 
The  furrow  was  five  inches  by  nine  inches: 


PLOWS. 

a 

o 

>^ 
3 

02 

C 
w 

s 

O 

g 

60 

p 

m 

'o 

O 
O 

o 

60 

P 

< 

<u 

^60 
> 

t<-i 
o 

-u 
C 
<u 
o 

ID 

Oh 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Fergussou'  Scotch  swing 

266 
280 
196 
196 
252 
252 
238 
238 
322 
252 

700 
728 
602 
602 
616 
672 
602 
700 
728 

266 
238 
168 
182 
224 
210 
238 
224 
294 

490 
462 
322 
462 
420 
378 
420 
504 
504 

322 
322 
224 
196 
294 
266 
252 
294 
350 

406 
406 
201 
329 
364 
350 
350 
392 
441 

34 
34 

"9' 
21 
16 
16 
30 
46 

Hart's  Berkshire  one-wheel. . . 
Ransom's  FF  two-wheel 

Rutland  Ransom  two-wheel. .. 

Old  Berkshire  wheel  plow 

Holkham  plow,  two  wheels . . . 

Averages 

I 

250 

661  1     227 

440 

280 

371 

23 

We  learn  from  this  table  that  there  is  a  difference  between 
plows  in  the  same  soil,  and  with  equal  furrows  of  forty-six  per 
cent  in  the  extreme  case  of  the  Old  Berkshire  as  compared  with 
Hart's  one  wheel  Berkshire,  while  the  average  difference  in  the 
drauG;ht  of  nine  plows  was  tweuly-three  per  cent. 


156 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


The  column  headed  "Per  cent  of  averages"  is  intended  to  show 
the  excess  per  cent  of  the  average  draught  of  each  ph)w  in  the 
five  different  soils  over  the  draught  of  Hart's  one  wheel  Berk- 
shire, as  for  instance  Eansom's  F  F  two  wheel  plow  required  on 
an  average  in  all  the  soils  nine  per  cent  more  power  than  Hart's, 
&c.  In  order  to  make  this  point  still  more  intelligible,  we  have 
calculated  the  following  table,  showing  the  excess  of  power  per 
cent  required  for  each  plow  over  Hart's  as  shown  in  each  kind  of 
soil: 


PLOWS. 


cd   O 


3    ^ 

pq  o 


Hart's  Berkshire  one  wheel  . . 
Ransom's  FF,  two  wheel  .... 

Khig's  one  wheel 

Rutland  Ransom,  tvv'o  wheels 
Ferguson's  Scotch  Swing  .... 

Clark's  Scotch  Swing 

Ransom's  Swing 

King's  Swing 

Old  Berkshire  wheel  plow... 


00 
00 
21 
21 
36 
43 
28 
28 
64 


00 
00 
00 
16 
16 
21 
2i 
lU 
21 


00 
8^ 
4H 
33^ 
58i 
411 
33i 
25 
75 


00 

431 

30^ 

56i 

52 

431 

301 

111 

56i 


141 

00 
28^ 
50 
64i 

50 
35| 

78^ 


Averages 


28 


35 


37 


231 


This  table  will  be  found  an  exceedingly  instructive  one,  which 
we  urgently  advise  every  farmer  and  plowmaker  to  study  with 
profound  attention.  It  shows  that  in  a  sandy  loam  the  difference 
between  the  minimum  draught  (Hart's  and  Eansom's  F  F)  and 
the  maximum  (old  Berkshire)  amounts  to  sixty- four  per  cent. 
Two  horses  would  thus  draw  Hart's  plow  with  much  greater  ease 
than  three  horses  Avould  draw  the  Old  Berkshire.  In  the  loamy 
sand  the  excess  is  still  greater;  the  latter  plow  would  require  three 
and  a  half  horses  to  do  the  work  that  the  other  would  do  with 
two.  Alderman  Mechi  estimates  the  cost  of  keeping  a  horse  in 
England  for  one  year  at  £39  ($195),  and  it  is  no  less  in  this 
country.  If  this  estimate  is  correct,  a  farmer  would  save  at  the 
rate  of  $292.50  a  year  by  using  the  lighter  instead  of  the  heavier 
plow.  An  examination  of  the  other  columns  of  per  centages 
will  show  the  saving  which  will  be  effected  by  the  use  of  each. 
The  table  also  shows  how  greatly  the  economy  of  cultivation  is 
aff'ected  by  cohesive  soils.  The  average  draught  of  all  the  plows 
in  the  sandy  loam  is  250  pounds,  while  the  average  draught  in 
blue  clay  is  661  pounds;  hence,  while  the  farmer  on  the  sandy 
loam  is  compelled  to  pay  $195  for  his  power,  the  farmer  on  the 
stiff*  clay  must  pay  $515  for  cultivaling  the  same  area. 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.         15 T 

The  table  also  shows  in  a  very  striking  manner  how  necessary 
it  is  that  plows  should  be  specially  adapted  to  the  soils  in  which 
they  are  intended  to  work.  Thus  Hart's  plow  works  the  easiest 
in  all  soils  except  the  moory  soil,  in  which  Ransom's  F  F  excells 
it  by  fourteen  and  one-third  per  cent,  while  in  the  strong  loam 
Hart  exceeds  Ransom  by  forty-three  and  a  half  per  cent,  and 
loamy  sand  by  eight  and  one-third  per  cent.  Ransom's  Rutland 
excels  Furguson's  Swing  by  fifteen  per  cent  in  sandy  loam,  while 
in  strong  loams  Ferguson  excels  Ransom  by  four  and  a  half  per 
cent.  This  question  of  the  adaptation  of  plows  to  different  soils 
and  situations  has  been  too  much  overlooked  even  by  intelligent 
farmers,  and  it  shows  very  clearly  that  the  plow  for  "  all  kinds 
of  work,"  which  so  many  of  them  are  looking  and  longing  for, 
will  never  be  devised  by  the  ingenuity  of  man.  If  a  farmer 
desires  'perfect  work  the  plow  to  accomplish  it  must  be  made 
expressly  for  the  soil  and  the  conditions  of  the  work,  and  if  he 
uses  any  other  kind  he  must  pay  the  penalty  in  a  waste  of  power 
and  an  imperfection  in  the  work. 

A  series  of  experiments  having  for  their  object  an  answer  to 
the  question  we  are  discussing,  was  made  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Morton,  and 
given  in  his  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture.  The  ground  was  a 
deep,  silicious  loam,  above  the  quartoze  conglomerate  of  the  old 
red  sandstone  formation,  and  was  of  a  uniform  texture.  The 
results  of  the  dynamometer  w^ere  taken  with  a  self  recording 
arrangement,  and  every  care  was  taken  to  obtain  perfectly  correct 
results.  The  size  of  the  furrow  was  in  all  cases  six  inches  by 
nine  inches. 


PLOWS. 


Wilkie's 

Barrowman's , . . 

Fergusson's 

Beverstone 

Barrett  &  Exall's  D  P. 
Ransom's  one-handled 


Averages . 


Pounds.  :Per  cent. 


581 
644 
560 
478 
567 


566 


22 
35 
17 
00 
18 


18 


In  these  experiments  the  same  difference  appears  between  the 
draught  of  plows  in  the  same  soil  and  with  a  furrow  of  the  same 
size,  as  was  disclosed  in  Mr.  Pusey's  experiments,  but  it  is  not  so 
great  in  amount,  the  draught  of  the  heaviest  exceeding  that  of  the 


158 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


lightest  by  tbirty-iive  per  ceut,  and  the  average  of  tbe  five  by 
eighteen  per  cent. 

The  trials  made  by  this  Society  in  1850  were  on  stubble  land, 
the  soil  being  a  stiff  loam  inclining  to  clay,  mingled  with  stones 
of  various  sizes,  near  Greenbush.  The  following  table  shows  the 
differences  in  the  draught  of  the  plows  tried  at  that  time: 


PLOWS. 


Pounds. 


Per  cent, 


Wilkie's  Scotch,  A.  Fleck 

Subsoil  and  sod,  French  &  Smith  

Washington  Co.,  Iron  Beam,  D.  Eddy  &  Co 

John  Randerson's 

Miner  &  Horton's,  Peekskill 

Starbuck  &  Co.,  Trojan 

P.  Auld,  Improved  Scotch 

Prouty  &  Mears,  Centre  Draft,  No.  51 

Bosworth,  Rich  &  Co.,  Iron  Beam,  D 

R.  R.  Tench  &  Co.,  Empire,  A3 

H.  L.  Emery,  Albany 

W.  W.  Chase,  Amsterdam,  No  6 

E.  J.  Burrall,  Shell-wheel 

Prouty  &  Mears,  Connecticut  Valley 

Average 


487 

42 

406 

19 

439 

28 

342 

00 

363 

6 

379 

11 

373 

9 

383 

12 

425 

24 

456 

33 

427 

24 

343 

350 

2 

525 

53 

407 


19 


The  furrow  slice  in  the  above  trials  was  seven  inches  by  ten 
inches. 

In  this  series  of  experiments  we  find  the  difl'erence  between 
the  heaviest  and  the  lightest  plow  is  equal  to  fifty-three  per  cent, 
and  the  difference  between  the  lightest  plow  and  the  average 
draught  of  them  all  was  nineteen  per  cent. 

Summing  up  tha  results  of  the  three  sets  of  experiments,  we 
have: 

Mr.  Pusey's  Experiments — Maximum  difference,  78 1  per  cent; 
average  difference,  23^  per  cent. 

Mr.  Morton's  Experiments — Maximum  difference,  35  per  cent; 
average  difference,  18  per  cent. 

New  York  State  Agricultural  Society's  Experiments — Maximum 
difference,  53  per  cent;  average  difference,  19  per  cent. 

Average  of  the  three  experiments — Maximum  difference,  55| 
per  cent;  average  difference,  20  per  cent. 

Which  may  be  taken  as  the  best  answer  that  can  yet  be  given 
to  the  second  question. 

The  third  question  which  we  have  proposed  is,  "  What  propor- 
tion of  the  power  required  by  a  plow  is  used  by  the  sole?     What 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing. 


159 


by  the  land  side?     What  by  the  share?     What  by  the  coulter? 
What  by  the  mould-board?" 

The  first  question  is  answered  by  Mr.  Pusey's  experiments,  as 
follows: 


PLOWS. 


Surface 
draught. 


Weight 
of  plow, 


lbs. 

lbs. 

168 

180 

168 

180 

42 

168 

112 

179 

140 

147 

112 

112 

84 

140 

112 

112 

2i6 

Fergusson's  Swing 
Clark's  Swing  . . . 

Hart's  Wheel 

FF  Wheel 

F  F  Swing 

King's  Swing. .  • . 
King's  Wheel .... 
Old  Berks'  Wheel 
Rutland  Wheel. . . 

Average 


117 


164 


The  average  draft  of  these  plows  working  in  strong  loam,  and 
with  a  furrow  of  five  inches  by  nine  inches,  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
440  pounds.  Hence  the  ratio  of  the  power  consumed  by  the 
friction  of  the  sole  to  the  whole  power  is  as  1:  3.76. 

We  have  met  with  no  experiments  having  for  their  object  the 
determination  of  the  friction  of  the  land  side  separately  from  the 
other  portions  of  the  plow. 

The  only  experiments  known  to  ns  on  the  influence  of  the  share 
on  draught  are  those  of  Mr.  Morton,  which,  although  they  do 
not  give  a  complete  answer  to  our  question,  are  sufficient  to  show 
that  this  part  of  the  plow  exercises  a  very  important  influence 
upon  the  action  of  it.  The  draught  of  Ferguson's  Swing  plow, 
with  a  share  ten  inches  wide,  was  630  pounds,  while  the  same 
plow,  with  a  share  six  inches  wide,  drew  only  560  pounds.  In 
the  former  case  the  w^hole  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  furrow  was 
cut  ofi";  in  the  latter  case  four  inches  on  the  right  side  of  the 
furrow  were  uncut,  and  were  torn  ofi"  by  the  wedge  of  the  share 
and  mould-board.  The  experiment  shows  that  the  cutting  of 
these  four  inches  and  the  increased  friction  of  the  wider  share 
increased  the  power  required  to  the  extent  of  twelve  per  cent. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Stephens  seemed  to  show  that  it 
required  exactly  the  same  power  to  draw  a  coulter  through  the 
ground  as  it  did  to  draw  the  plow  w^ithout  a  coulter;  but  this 
experiment  needs  verification. 


160  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

According  to  Mr.  Morton's  experiments  the  whole  draught  of 
the  plow  is  476  pounds;  the  removal  of  the  mould-board  dimin- 
ishes this  only  to  434  pounds;  in  other  words,  only  ten  per  cent 
of  the  whole  draught  is  caused  by  the  turning  of  the  furrow 
slice.  The  draught  of  the  plow  running  along  the  open  furrow 
was  168  pounds,  which,  being  subtracted  from  434  pounds,  the 
di-aught  without  the  mould-board,  leaves  266  pounds  as  the 
draught  required  for  the  cutting  of  the  furrow  slice.  Should  this 
division  of  the  draught  hold  generally  true,  we  may  infer  that 
the  labor  of  plowing  may  be  distributed  as  follows:  Thirty-five 
per  cent  for  the  weight  of  the  implement;  fifty-five  per  cent  to 
cutting  of  the  furrow  slice,  and  only  ten  per  cent  to  the  action. 

This  conclusion,  if  correct,  will  change  the  former  current  of 
opinion  to  a  very  great  extent.  Great  labor  has  been  expended 
upon  the  mould-board,  upon  the  hypothesis  that  the  draught 
depends  to  a  very  great  extent  upon  its  shape,  but  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  share,  the  coulter,  and  the  weight  of  the  plow  are 
far  more  promising  points  for  its  improvement  than  the  mould- 
board. 

The  effect  of  the  friction  of  the  sole  upon  the  draught  has  been 
known  to  plowmakers  for  a  long  time,  and  many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  diminish  it  by  the  addition  of  a  large  wheel  near 
the  heel,  in  such  a  position  that  the  plow  nearly  balances  over  it, 
and  by  the  introduction  of  friction  wheels  on  the  land  side.  At 
the  trial  at  Albany  in  1850,  Mr.  Burrall  exhibited  a  plow  with  one 
of  these  wheels.  At  first  its  draught  was  very  light,  though  not 
as  much  so  as  some  of  the  plows  which  were  not  furnished  with 
this  appliance,  but  after  working  some  time  the  wheel  became 
clogged  by  the  loose  earth,  and  it  then  became  decidedly  heavier 
than  those  which  were  formed  in  the  usual  manner. 

Another  experiment  which  was  tried  by  Mr.  Pusey,  with  a  view 
of  determining  the  ratio  of  the  draught  to  the  depth  of  the 
plowing,  may  be  usefully  stated  in  this  connection. 

The  experiment  was  made  on  a  free,  brown  loamy  sand  of  a 
good  quality,  without  stone,  gravel  or  clod,  resting  on  a  pure, 
yellow  sand  on  the  coral  sag  formation.  The  results  are  given  in 
the  following  table: 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.         161 


PLOyVS. 

Furrow, 
4  by  9  in. 

Furrow, 
5  by  9  in. 

Furrow, 
6  by  9  in. 

Furrow, 
7  by  9  in. 

252 
238 
154 
168 
224 
210 
224 
224 
294 

266 
238 
16S 
182 
224 
210 
238 
224 
294 

266 
252 
224 

252 
252 
252 
294 
252 
336 

308 
294 
252 
294 
294 
280 
322 
280 
434 

Clark's  Swing  Plow 

F  F  (Ransom's)  Two-wheeled 

F  F  (Ransom's)  Swing 

Kino's  One-wheeled 

Rutland  N  L  Two-wheeled 

Old  Berks 

Average ...•..•..•■. 

221 

227 

264 

306 

The  increased  average  draught  of  the  first  inch  is  2.71  per 
cent;  of  the  second  inch,  16.29  per  cent,  and  of  the  third,  15.91 
per  cent.     Average,  11.63  per  cent. 

Mr.  Pusey  made  a  second  experiment  to  determine  this  point  a 
few  days  afterwards  upon  a  poor,  moory  soil,  with  Ferguson's 
Scotch  plow,  with  the  following  results: 


Furrow,  nine  inches  wide. 

FURROW— Depth  in  inches.  ' 

Draught 
in  lbs. 

Increase, 
percent. 

5 

322 
308 
350 
420 
434 
560 
700 
700 

""s'.io 

20.00 

3.33 

29.03 

25.00 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 „ 

12 

Ave 

raffe 

474 

12.29 

The  experiments  on  this  point  made  by  Mr.  Morton  are  giveu 


in  the  following  table: 


Furrow,  nine  inches  wide. 

FURROW. 

Fergusson . 

Beverstone.'Barrowman . 

Barrett. 

Average 
pounds. 

Depth  in  inches. 

Pounds. 

Pounds.        Pounds. 

Pounds. 

4  

462 
560 
840 

378 
476 
896 

574 
644 

854 

354 
560 

442 
560 
863 

6  

81 

Average 

621 

583 

690 

457 

621 

11 


162 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


Increase. 


PLOWS. 


Between    ,    Between 


4  and  6  in . 


Per  cent. 


Of  Fergusson's  . 
Of  Beverstone's 
Of  Barrowman's 
Of  Barrett's.... 

Average  . . . 


21.21 

25.92 
12.19 
58.18 


29.37 


6  and  81  in, 


Per  cent. 


50.00 
88.23 
32.01 


56.94 


Average 
per  cent. 


35.50 
57.07 
22.40 
58.18 


43.31 


The  average  increase  of  power  for  each  inch  in  depth  ot  Fer- 
guson's plow  was  7.90  per  cent,  or  84  pounds;  Beverstone's  plow 
was  12.68  per  cent,  or  115  pounds;  Barrowman's  plow  was  4.98 
per  cent,  or  62  pounds;  Barrett's  plow  was  12.92  per  cent,  or  103 
pounds.     Average,  9,62  per  cent,  or  91  pounds. 

Our  own  experiments  on  this  point  were  very  meagre,  on 
account  of  the  mistake  in  sending  ofl*  the  dynamometer  heretofore 
alluded  to,  but  as  the  subject  is  of  so  much  importance  we  give 
them  here.  The  experiment  w^as  made  in  a  very  hard  soil,  with 
gravel  indurated  in  the  cla}^,  and  all  the  plowing  was  deeper  than 
any  previous  plowing,  so  that  in  each  case  the  plow  went  into 
soil  which  had  never  been  disturbed  before.  The  plow  used  was 
Holbrook's  No.  100;  furrow  ten  inches  wide.  At  8^  inches  deep, 
659  pounds;  at  10^  inches  deep,  753  pounds — increase,  94  pounds; 
at  12^  inches  deep,  801  pounds — increase,  48  pounds.  The  aver- 
age increase  of  power  for  each  inch  of  depth  in  this  case  is  35 
pounds,  or  5.38  per  cent. 

We  can  most  fully  corroborate  the  correctness  of  Mr.  Pusey's 
remark,  that  this  is  a  very  difficult  experiment  to  make.  It  is 
hard  to  preserve  the  exact  depth  of  one  inch  more  or  less;  some- 
times it  will  run  up  or  down  considerably  more  than  an  inch. 
Sometimes  when  plowing  at  a  given  depth  the  share  will  encounter 
a  mass  of  roots  which  resist  very  greatly,  while  in  plowing  an 
inch  deeper  we  do  not  encounter  these  obstacles,  and  the  plow  at 
that  depth  does  not  appear  to  draw  as  heavily  as  it  did  when 
plowing  an  inch  shallower.  Owing  to  these  inequalities  in  the 
texture  of  the  soil  at  different  depths,  we  need  not  expect  to  meet 
with  any  very  regular  law  of  progression  in  the  draught  in  the 
indications  of  any  particular  table;  but  by  having  recourse  to 
averages,  the  indications  of  a  uniform  law  of  increase  begin  to 
develop  themselves  sufficiently  to  assure  us  that  when  a  sufficient 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.  163 

imiiiher  of  experiments  shall  have  been  carefnlly  made  we  may 
ascertain  the  law  nearly  enongh  for  all  practical  pnrposes.  The 
average  increase  of  draught  per  inch  in  Mr.  Pusey's  experiments 
was  12.29  per  cent.  In  Mr.  Morton's  experiments  it  was  9.62  per 
cent,  and  in  our  own  experiments  it  was  5.38  per  cent.  The 
average  of  all  these  is  9.09,  say  in  round  numbers,  ten  per  cent 
of  increase  in  draught  for  each  additional  inch  depth  of  furrow 
between  the  limits  of  four  and  twelve  inches. 

If  this  conclusion  approximates  to  correctness  it  appears  that 
the  draught  increases  in  proportion  to  the  depth  much  less  rap- 
idly than  has  been  heretofore  supposed.  Mr.  Pusey  says  that  it 
has  been  laid  down  in  our  books  that  the  draught  increases  as  the 
squares  of  the  depth;  that  is  to  say,  that  if  the  draught  at  four 
inches  be  252  pounds,  at  seven  inches  it  will  be  as  49  to  16,  or 
756  pounds,  whereas  experiment  shows  that  on  an  average  it  is 
only  308  pounds,  or  less  than  half  that  amount. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  both  theory  and  experiment  show 
that  plows  made  expressly  for  deep  tillage  will  work  relatively 
lighter  in  a  deep  furrow  than  in  a  shallow  one.  Thus  a  plow 
made  expressly  for  a  four  inch  furrow  compared  Avith  one  made 
for  a  twelve  inch  furrow  Avill  work  in  the  furrow  it  was  desio-ned 
for  with  much  less  draught  than  a  deep  plow;  but  if  the  four 
inch  plow  is  made  to  take  a  furrow  ten  inches  deep,  the  plow 
designed  for  twelve  inches  will  be  found  to  require  much  less 
draught.  This  fact  should  never  be  lost  sight  of  in  trials  of  this 
kind. 

We  know  of  no  experiments  made  with  a  view  to  determine 
the  ratio  of  power  required  to  turn  over  furrow  slices  of  difi'er- 
ent  breadths  while  the  depth  remains  uniform. 

There  is  another  point  upon  which  Mr.  Pusey's  experiments 
throw  much  light,  and  which  led  to  conclusions  very  different 
from  those  which  have  been  generally  entertained.  It  has  been 
generally  supposed  that  the  power  required  to  draw  a  plow 
increased  as  the  square  of  the  velocity,  but  experiments  show  that 
this  is  not  the  case. 

Mr.  Pusey  made  repeated  trials  in  order  to  settle  this  point 
under  a  great  variety  of  circumstances.  The  first  trial  was  in  the 
moory  ground  mentioned  in  preceding  tables,  and  with  Clark's 
plow.  The  horses  were  made  to  walk  as  slowly  as  possible,  and 
the  draught  was  found  to  be  336  pounds  in  a  five  inch  furrow. 
The  horses  were  now  urged  forward  at  their  highest  rate  of  speed, 


164 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


and  the  draught  was  350  pounds,  which  is  only  14  pounds  more 
than  when  they  were  walking  slowly. 

A  second  trial  was  had  in  an  adhesive  loam,  in  so  bad  a  condition 
that  the  polished  mould-board  was  completely  encrusted  with  earth. 
Hart's  plow  was  selected  for  the  experiment,  and  one  hundred 
and  ten  yards,  or  one-sixteenth  of  a  mile,  were  accurately  meas- 
ured off.  At  the  first  trial  the  horses  traveled  the  distance  in 
two  minutes  and  forty  seconds,  being  at  the  rate  of  one  and  a 
half  miles  in  an  hour.  The  dynamometer  showed  a  draft  of  322 
pounds,  the  furrow  being  four  inches  l)y  nine  inches.  At  the 
second  trial  the  distance  was  done  in  two  minutes  and  twenty-five 
seconds,  being  at  the  rate  of  one  and  three-quarter  miles  in  an 
hour.  The  furrow  was  of  the  same  size,  and  the  draught  was 
still  322  pounds  as  before.  At  the  next  trial  the  rate  was  one 
minute  and  forty  seconds,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  two  and  three- 
quarter  miles  in  an  hour;  the  draft,  from  some  cause,  was  reduced 
instead  of  being  increased,  and  stood  at  308  pounds.  Finally  the 
distance  was  accomplished  in  one  minute  and  five  seconds,  or  at 
the  rate  of  three  and  a  half  miles  in  an  hour.  The  draft  was 
indeed  increased,  but  the  increase  Avas  only  14  pounds,  which 
might  ver}^  probably  be  due  to  an  increased  tenacity  of  the  soil. 

The  following  table  shows  the  time  which  would  be  required 
for  plowing  an  acre,  with  a  furrow  nine  inches  wide,  at  the  differ- 
ent rates  of  motion,  exclusive  of  stoppages: 


Rate  of  going  per  hour. 

Time  required  to  plow 
an  acre. 

Draught  of 
plow. 

1 2  miles 

7  hours,  20  minutes. 
6      "       30 
4      "       00 
3      "       08 

322  pounds. 
322 

308        " 
336       " 

11      "      

9|        <«                       

3i      "     

Mr.  Morton's  experiments  were  first  with  a  speed  equivalent  to 
two  and  a  half  miles  an  hour.  The  furrow  was  four  by  nine 
inches,  and  the  draught  was  378  pounds.  At  five  miles  an  hour 
the  draught  was  392  pounds.  His  experiments  were  made  with 
a  self  recording  dynamometer,  in  which  the  pencil  described  the 
extent  of  every  oscillation.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  these 
oscillations  were  very  greatly  increased  at  the  higher  rate  of 
speed,  ranging  between  the  extremes  of  210  and  644  pounds, 
while  at  the  lower  rate  the  oscillations  ranged  from  280  to  504 
pounds. 


Practical  Questions  in  Plows  and  Plowing.         165 

This  result  might  have  been  reasonably  expected,  as  when  the 
plow  strikes  a  stone  or  other  ol)struction  the  horses  will  naturally 
exert  all  their  strength,  and  by  so  doing  cause  a  wide  sweep  of 
oscillation. 

We  can  say  in  conclusion  that  the  results  o1)tained  upon  this 
point  by  Messrs.  Morton  and  Pusey  are  fully  corroborated  by 
our  own  observations.  We  could  detect  no  difference  between 
the  draught  at  high  or  low  speeds,  except  such  as  are  within  the 
limit  usually  allowed  for  errors  of  observation.  In  fact,  the 
dynamometer  sometimes  showed  a  less  draught  at  a  high  speed 
than  it  did  at  a  low  one. 

This  is  quite  in  accordance  with  other  experiments  which  have 
been  made  to  ascertain  the  laws  of  friction,  which  show  that  it  is 
entirely  independent  of  velocity. 

The  resistance  to  the  action  of  the  plow  is  made  up  of  the 
weight  of  the  plow  pressing  upon  the  sole,  with  the  superadded 
weight  of  the  furrow  slice;  the  friction  of  the  land  side  against 
the  earth;  the  friction  of  the  furrow  slice  against  the  surface  of 
the  mould-board;  the  splitting  action  of  the  coulter,  and  the  force 
required  to  lift  up  and  turn  over  the  furrow  slice.  It  is  only  in 
this  latter  case  that  the  real  work  performed  is  increased  by  the 
velocity,  and  this  is  so  small  a  proportion  of  the  whole  force  that 
it  may  be  safely  neglected  in  practice. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  by  every  farmer  that  the  conclusion 
we  have  come  to,  in  view  of  the  experiments,  is  one  of  very 
great  practical  value.  It  shows,  as  Mr.  Morton  remarks,  "the 
importance  of  employing  draught  animals  which  naturally  walk 
at  a  rapid  pace.  Sucti  animals,  with  same  effort,  get  through 
double  the  work  of  those  of  a  more  sluggish  movement.  With 
the  same  effort,  and  therefore  at  no  greater  expense  to  the  farmer. 
The  employment  of  active  animals  is  obviously  one  of  the  most 
influential  methods  of  diminishing  the  expense  of  horse  labor." 

In  view  of  these  experiments,  Mr.  Pusey  remarks:  "Here, 
then,  it  appears  to  me  we  have  found  the  secret  of  the  Scotch 
horse's  superior  performance  as  to  quality  of  work  done.  Though 
they  are  stepping  briskly  along  at  a  pace  which  enables  them  to 
work  five-quarters  of  an  acre  in  a  day,  while  the  dragging  walk 
of  the  other  horses  carries  them  through  three-quarters  of  an 
acre  only  in  the  same  time.  They  feel  the  weight  of  the  plow 
certainly  not  more  than  the  others;  perhaps  even  less.  Let  the 
horses  be  lively  enough  to  face  their  work  boldly,  and  step  out 


166  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

well;  they  get,  or  rather  their  master  gets,  beyond  the  former 
three-quarters  of  an  acre,  two-quarters  more  plowed  for  nothing. 
It  is  true  that  the  horses  have  to  walk  a  greater  distance  in  one 
case,  but  this  cannot  be  of  much  consequence.  In  plowing  an 
acre,  with  the  furrow  nine  inches  wide,  the  horse  has  to  walk  in 
the  furrow  eleven  miles  exactly.  If,  then,  he  plow  three-quarters 
of  an  acre  in  a  day,  he  has  to  walk  eight  and  one-quarter  miles 
only;  if  five-quarters,  he  must  pass  over  thirteen  and  three- 
quarters  miles — but  five  and  a  half  miles  more  than  before.  The 
increased  rate  of  the  animal's  exertion  has  also,  of  course,  a  great 
effect  upon  the  fatigue  of  its  frame,  where  the  difference  is  con- 
siderable. But  I  suppose  that  each  animal  has,  in  some  degree, 
a  natural  pace,  suited  to  its  conformation,  which  is  most  easy  to 
it,  and  that  the  quicker  rate  of  two  and  three-quarters  miles  in 
the  hour  may  be  as  natural  to  the  Clydesdale  horse  as  a  more 
tardy  Avalk  to  cart-horses  of  our  heavy  breeds.  Still  I  do  not 
wish  to  assert  that,  under  all  circumstances,  it  is  as  easy  for  a 
horse  to  move  quickly  as  slowly  with  a  heavy  draught.  If  he  be 
overweighted,  he  will  not  have  sufl^cient  strength  to  spare  for 
carrying  on  his  own  weight  with  ease,  and  will  naturally  flag  at 
his  task. 

"  In  order  to  move  briskly,  he  ought,  I  suppose,  to  feel  in  some 
degree  master  of  his  work,  and  be  able,  if  required,  to  draw 
something  more  than  his  actual  load.  I  ought  also  to  mention, 
after  stating  the  superior  exertions  which  the  horse  may  be  called 
on  to  make,  that  these  Clydesdale  horses  of  Lord  Moreton's  are 
not  only  fed  in  a  superior  manner,  but  that  their  day's  work  is 
broken  into  two  portions  of  time,  between  which  they  have  rest, 
and  either  return  home  to  be  fed  or  are  supplied  by  means  of 
nose-bags,  with  corn,  in  the  field.  I  believe  that  the  practice  of 
working  horses  for  eight  hours  together  not  only  adds  to  their 
fatigue,  but  that  the  absence  of  food  for  so  long  a  time  must  be 
a  much  more  severe  privation  to  them  (as  to  all  animals  feeding 
on  grass  and  seeds  only)  than  it  is  to  the  carniverous  animals  and 
to  ourselves." 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  167 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

ON  THE  LINE  OF  DRAUGHT  OF  PLOWS. 

Ill  using  a  double  mould-board  plow  it  is  very  obvious  that  the 
line  of  draught  will  be  in  the  direction  of  the  middle  line  of  such 
plow;  that  is,  the  resistance  of  the  earth  to  the  action  of  the 
mould-board  on  the  right  side  of  the  beam  tending  to  throw  the 
heel  of  the  plow  to  the  left  hand,  will  be  exactly  counterbalanced 
by  the  resistance  of  the  earth  on  the  left  mould-board,  tending 
to  throw  the  heel  to  the  right  hand.  These  two  faces  being  equal 
and  contrary  will  therefore  neutralize  each  other,  and  the  plow 
will  move  steadily  forward  in  the  direct  line  of  the  draught. 

This  is  not  the  case  when  the  left  side  is  cut  off,  as  in  our  ordi- 
nary plows,  and  the  whole  of  the  work  is  done  by  the  share  and 
mould-board  of  the  right  side.  Here  the  plow  is  acted  on  by  a 
lever  whose  length  is  the  breadth  of  the  plow,  the  eifect  of  which 
is  to  throw  the  heel  of  the  plow  against  the  land  side,  and  there- 
fore to  throw  the  point  away  from  land,  thus  constantly  narrowing 
the  breadth  of  the  furrow.  lu  order  to  obviate  this  tendency  of 
the  plow  to  run  out,  the  English  and  Scotch  plowmakers  make 
their  beams  oblique  to  the  plane  of  the  land  side,  so  that  the  for- 
ward extremity  of  the  axis  of  the  beam  falls  from  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  to  two  inches  to  the  right  of  the  plane  of  the  land  side 
produced  to  that  point.  Although  this  obliquity  of  the  beam 
eflectually  resists  the  tendency  of  the  plow  to  run  out,  yet  it 
introduces  an  element  of  unsteadiness  into  the  motion  of  the  plow 
which  keeps  the  eye  of  the  plowman  continually  upon  the  watch, 
and  his  hand  continually  in  motion  to  rectify  the  aberration. 

Messrs.  Prouty  &  Mears  devised  a  much  better  plan  for  accom- 
plishing this  object,  which  has  been  since  adopted  by  the  greater 
number  of  our  American  plowmakers. 

They  considered  that  there  was  a  plane  passing  lengthwise 
through  the  plow,  which  was  so  situated  that  the  forces  on  each 
side  of  it  would  balance  each  other.  Since  the  greatest  amount 
of  the  force  required  to  move  the  plow  is  employed  in  severing 
the  furrow  slice  from  the  solid  land,  it  follows  that  the  plane  will 
lie  much  nearer  to  the  land  side  than  to  the  furrow  side  of  the 
plow.     They  accordingly  found,  from  carefully  repeated  experi- 


168  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

ments,  that  in  average  soils  and  conditions  that  if  the  land  side 
was  made  with  seven  degrees  of  obliquity  to  the  perpendicular, 
or  eighty-three  degrees  to  the  plane  of  the  sole,  the  axis  of  the 
beam  would  lie  in  the  plane  passing  through  the  centre  of  resist- 
ance. When  the  axis  of  the  beam  lies  in  this  direction  the  plow 
moves  forward  without  any  tendency  to  deviate  from  the  line  of 
motion  either  to  the  right  hand  or  the  left.  I'his  arrangement  is 
illustrated  in  Fig,  80,  in  which  a  vertical  section  of  the  plow  is 
represented.  The  dotted  line,  C  D,  being  the  per- 
^  pendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  sole,  S;  the  angle 

IT  C  D  B  is  7  deg.;  L  is  the  standard,  and  the  lower 

I  /  part  of  it  is  the  land  side;  M,  section  of  mould- 

1  board;  B,  section  of  the  beam. 

h\  There  is  also  a  horizontal  as  well  as  a  perpen- 

1  \  dicular  plane    of  resistance.     When  the   draught 

I     X'v^'^      coincides  with  this  plane  there  is  no  tendency  in 
N\^^      the  plow  to  go  deeper  or  shallower;  if  the  draught 

^"s -^^  is  above  it  the  point  of  the  plow  is  drawn  down- 

I^iff.  80.  ward  with  a  force  proportioned  to  the  height  of  the 
point  of  draught  above  this  plane;  if  placed  below  it,  the  point 
of  the  plow  will  in  like  manner  rise  out  of  the  ground,  and  these 
tendencies  can  only  be  counteracted  by  the  plowman  pressing  on 
the  handles  of  the  plow  in  the  former  case,  or  lifting  them  b}^ 
main  force  in  the  latter  case. 

Again,  we  have  a  third  plane  of  resistance,  which  is  vertical  and 
transverse.  The  plow  enters  the  unbroken  earth  by  a  single 
point,  the  transverse  sections  increasing  gradually  in  area  until 
they  attain  to  their  maximum  dimensions;  but  as  the  point  enters 
and  breaks  the  solid  earth,  the  force  required  does  not  increase 
nearly  as  fast  as  the  sectional  area  increases,  hence  the  position 
of  this  plane  raises  from  one  to  five  inches  behind  the  point  of 
the  plow,  according  to  the  consistency  of  the  soil  and  the  shape 
of  the  plow. 

The  point  of  resistance  of  the  plow  is  therefore  situated  at  the 
intersection  of  these  three  planes.  If  the  line  of  draught  passes 
through  this  point,  the  plow  will,  in  the  language  of  the  plow- 
man, "swim  free;"  and  it  is  therefore  a  point  of  great  practical 
importance  to  ascertain  the  locality  of  the  point  of  resistance, 
and  to  have  a  ready  means  of  adjustment  by  which  the  line  of 
draught  may  be  made  to  pass  through  it. 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  169 

In  speaking  of  the  proper  angle  of  draught,  Mr.  Stephens 
remarks  ("Book  of  the  Farm,"  page  286): 

"  The  reasoning  heretofore  adopted  on  this  branch  of  the 
theory  of  the  plow  seems  to  be  grounded  on  the  two  following 
data:  the  height,  on  an  average,  of  a  horse's  shoulder,  or  that 
point  in  his  collar  Avhere  the  yoke  is  applied;  and  the  length  of 
the  draught  chains  that  will  give  him  ample  freedom  to  walk.  It 
falls  out,  fortunately,  too,  that  the  angle  of  elevation  thus  pro- 
duced crosses  the  plane  of  the  collar  as  it  lies  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  horse  when  in  draught,  nearly  at  right  angles." 

It  may,  however,  be  shown  that  the  plow  may  be  drawn  at  any 
angle  from  the  horizontal  nearly  up  to  the  perpendicular,  if 
certain  practical  diiSculties  were  removed,  and  that  would  require 
a  continually  diminishing  force  to  draw  it  as  the  line  of  draught 
approaches  to  a  horizontal  direction,  arriving  at  a  minimum  when 
it  reaches  that  point.  It  is,  however,  impossible  in  practice  to 
apply  the  force  in  this  direction,  as  the  line  of  draught  would,  in 
this  case,  pass  through  the  solid  earth  of  the  furrow  slice;  but  it 
is  practicable  to  draw  the  plow  at  an  angle  of  12  degrees,  which, 
as  will  be  demonstrated,  will  require  less  draught  by  fourteen 
pounds  than  would  be  required  if  the  angle  were  20  degrees, 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  average  in  the  ordinary  practice 
of  plowing.  A  plow  drawn  at  this  low  angle,  viz.,  12  degrees, 
would  have  its  beam  (if  of  the  ordinary  length)  so  low  that  the 
draught-bolt  would  be  only  ten  inches  above  the  base  line;  and 
this  is  not  an  impracticable  height,  though  the  traces  might  be 
required  inconveniently  long.  On  the  same  principle,  the  angle 
of  draught  might  be  elevated  to  60  or  70  degrees,  provided  a 
motive  power  could  be  applied  at  such  high  angles.  In  this,  as 
before,  the  beam  and  clevis  would  be  in  the  straight  line  between 
the  point  of  attachment  at  the  collar  and  the  centre  of  resistance. 
The  whole  plow,  also,  under  this  hypothesis,  would  require  an 
almost  indefinite  increase  of  weight;  and  the  power  required  to 
draw  the  plow,  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees,  would  l)e  nearly  twice 
that  required  in  the  horizontal  direction,  or  li|  times  that  of  the 
present  practice,  exclusive  of  what  might  arise  from  increased 
weight.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that  to  draw  the  plow  at 
any  angle  higher  than  the  present  practice  is  impracticable,  and, 
though  rendered  practicable,  would  still  be  highly  inexpedient 
by  reason  of  the  disadvantage  of  incrersed  force  being  thus  ren- 
dered necessary,  unless  we   can  suppose  that  the  application  oi 


170 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


steam  or  other  inanimate  power  might  require  it.     Neither  would 

it  be  very  expedient  to  adopt  a  lower  angle,  since  it  involves  a 

a    greater   length   of  trace  m 

chains,  which  at  best  would 

1)6  rather  cumbrous,  and  it 

would  produce  a  saving  of 

force  of  only  14  pounds  on 

the   draught  of  a   pair  of 

horses.    Yet  it  is  worthy  of 

being  borne  in  mind  that, 

in  all  cases,  there  is  some 

saving  of  labor  to  the  horses, 

whenever  they  are,  by  any 

means,  allowed  to  draw  by 

a  chain  of  increased  length, 

provided  the  clevis  of  the 

plow  is   brought   into    the 

line  of  the  draught,  and  the 

drauo;ht  chains  are  not  of 

such   undue    weight    as  to 

produce  a   sensible    curva- 
ture;   in   other    words,    to 

insure  the  change  of  angle 

at  the  horse's  shoulder  due 

to  the  increased  length  of 

the  draught  chain." 

This  subject  will  be  better 

understood  when  considered 

in  connection  with  Fig.  81. 
Let  a  represent  the  body 

of  the  plow,  b  the  point  of 

the  beam,  and  c  the  centre 

of  resistance  of  the  plow, 

which  may  be  assumed  at  a 

aeight  of  two  inches  above 

the  plane  of  the  sole,  d  e, 

though  it  is  liable  to  change 

within  short  limits.    The  av- 
erage leno-th  of  the  draught 

chains  or  traces  being  ten 

feetjincludingcvener, whiffle  i^^/^.  cV/. 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  171 

trees,  hooks,  and  all  that  intervenes  between  the  clevis  and  the 
horse's  shoulders.  Let  that  distance  be  set  off  in  the  direction 
bf,  and,  the  average  height  of  the  horse's  shoulders  being  four 
feet  two  inches,  let  the  point/  be  fixed  at  that  height,  above  the 
})ase  line,  d  e.  Draw  the  line  /  c,  which  is  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  draught,  acting  upon  the  centre  of  resistance,  c;  and  if 
the  plow  is  in  proper  temper  it  will  coincide  with  the  clevis;  e  cf 
being  the  angle  of  draught  and  equal  to  20  degrees.  It  will  be 
easily  perceived  that,  with  the  same  horses  and  the  same  length 
of  yoke,  the  angle,  e  c  f,  is  invariable;  and  if  the  plow  has  a 
tendency  to  dip  at  the  point  of  the  share  under  this  arrangement, 
it  indicates  that  the  draught-bolt,  b,  is  too  high  in  the  bridle. 
Shifting  the  bolt  one  or  two  holes  downwards  will  bring  the  plow 
to  swim  evenly  upon  its  sole.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  plow 
has  a  tendency  to  raise  at  the  point  of  the  share,  the  indication 
from  this  is  that  the  evener  is  too  low  in  the  clevis,  and  the  recti- 
fication must  be  made  by  raising  it  one  or  two  holes  in  the  clevis. 

Suppose,  again,  that  a  pair  of  taller  horses  were  yoked  in  the 
plow,  the  traces,  depth  of  furrow,  and  soil,  and,  by  consequence, 
the  point  of  resistance,  c,  remaining  the  same,  we  should  then 
have  the  point  /  raised  to  /'.  By  drawing  the  line  /'  c  we  have 
e  cf  as  the  angle  of  draught,  which  will  now  be  22  degrees;  and 
in  this  new  arrangement  the  draught-bolt  is  found  to  be  below  the 
line  of  draught,/"'  c;  and  if  the  traces  were  applied  at  b,  in  the 
direction  of/'  6,  the  plow  would  have  a  tendency  to  rise  at  the 
point  of  the  share  by  the  action  of  that  law  of  forces  which 
oblige's  the  line  of  draught  to  coincide  with  the  line  which  passes 
through  the  centre  of  resistance;  hence  the  draught-bolt,  b,  Avould 
be  found  to  rise  to  b\  which  would  raise  the  point  of  the  share 
out  of  its  proper  direction.  To  rectify  this,  then,  the  draught- 
bolt  must  be  raised  in  the  bridle  by  a  space  equal  to  b  b\  causing 
it  to  coincide  with  the  true  line  of  draught,  which  would  again 
bring  the  plow  to  swim  evenly  on  its  sole. 

Regarding  the  relative  forces  required  to  overcome  the  resist- 
ance of  the  plow  when  drawn  at  different  angles  of  draught,  we 
have  first  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  form  of  those  parts 
through  which  the  motive  force  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  plow. 
It  has  been  shown  that  the  tendency  of  the  motive  force  acts  in  a 
direct  line  from  the  shoulder  of  the  animal  of  draught  to  the 
centre  of  resistance;  and,  referring  again  to  Fig.  81,  were  it  not 
for  considerations  of  convenience,  a  straight  bar  or  beam  lying  in 


172  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

the  direction  c  6,  and  attached  firmly  to  the  plow's  body,  any- 
where between  c  and  y,  would  answer  all  the  purposes  of  draught, 
perhaps  better  than  the  present  beam.  But  the  draught  not 
being  the  end  in  view,  but  merely  the  means  by  which  that  end 
is  accomplished,  the  former  is  made  to  subserve  the  latter;  and 
as  the  beam,  if  placed  in  the  direction  c  6,  would  obstruct  the 
proper  working  of  the  plow,  we  are  constrained  to  resort  to 
another  indirect  action  to  arrive  at  the  desired  effect.  This 
indirect  action  is  accomplished  through  the  medium  of  a  system 
of  rigid  angular  frame  work,  consisting  of  the  beam  and  the 
body  of  the  plow,  or  those  parts  of  them  comprehended  between 
the  points  b  h  c,  the  beam  being  so  connected  to  the  body,  a  h,  as 
to  form  a  rigid  mass.  The  effect  of  the  motive  force  applied  to 
this  rigid  system  of  parts  at  the  point  b,  and  in  the  direction  bf, 
produces  the  same  result  as  if  c  6  were  firmly  connected  by  a  bar 
in  the  position  of  the  line  c  b,  or  as  if  that  bar  alone  were 
employed,  as  in  the  case  before  supposed,  and  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  beam,  b  h.  - 

Let  us  now  proceed  to  examine  the  effect  of  the  oblique  draught 
on  traction.  The  average  draught  of  plows  at  the  Albany  trials 
in  1850,  was  407  pounds,  with  a  furrow  seven  inches  by  ten 
inches,  when  exerted  in  the  direction  b  f.  If  now  we  take  the 
value  of  the  line  b  f  at  407,  a  certain  portion  of  the  force  will  be 
exerted  in  direct  traction,  and  another  portion  will  be  exerted 
in  pulling  the  plow  up  from  the  ground  in  the  direction  i  f, 
and  the  force  of  traction  will  be  to  the  lifting  force  in  the 
exact  ratio  of  the  line  i  b  to  the  line  if.  The  line  if  is  50  inches 
—  16  inches  =  34  inches  :  the  line  b  f  is  120  inches;  the  line  i  b 
is  therefore  115  inches;  and  we  therefore  have  120  inches  :  115 
inches  :  :  407  pounds  :  390  pounds  =  the  amount  of  direct  draught 
upon  the  plow  exerted  by  the  horses.  In  like  manner  the  force 
lifting  the  plow  upwards  is  found  to  be  114  pounds.  The  same 
result  would  follow  if  the  beam  were  supported  by  a  wheel  under 
the  point  b;  the  wheel  would  then  bear  up  the  beam  with  the 
same  force  as  that  by  which  it  was  supposed  to  be  suspended, 
viz.:  114  pounds.  But  to  carry  out  the  supposition,  let  the 
draught  now  found  be  applied  at  the  point  c;  as  the  plow  would 
then  have  no  tendency  to  dip  or  rise,  the  force,  k  b,  vanishes, 
leaving  only  the  direct  horizontal  force,  i  b;  hence,  were  it  pos- 
sible to  apply  the  draught  in  a  horizontal  direction  from  the  point 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  173 

of  resistance,  the  resistance  of  the  ploAv  would  be  390  pounds 
instead  of  407  pounds. 

THE    WHEEL. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  show  that,  theoretically  considered,  a  wheel 
placed  under  the  beam  can  in  no  case  lessen  the  traction  of  the 
plow,  as  many  plowmakers  and  plowmen  have  alleged. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  line  of  draught  is  in  the  horizontal 
direction;  it  will  therefore  require  that  a  support  be  placed 
beneath  the  beam  to  prevent  its  sinking  too  low,  which  support, 
in  all  modern  plows,  is  given  by  a  wheel.  It  has  been  shown 
that  whether  the  plow  be  drawn  in  the  ordinary  direction  of 
draught,  b  f,  in  which  one  oblique  propelling  force  only  is 
exerted,  or  with  two  antagonist  forces,  b  i,  in  the  horizontal  direc- 
tion, and  the  upholding  force,  b  k^  in  the  vertical,  we  find  that  in 
the  latter  the  diiference  in  favor  of  motive  force  is  only  one 
twenty-fourth  of  the  usual  resistance;  but  the  upholding  force  is 
equal  to  two-sevenths,  while  none  of  these  variations  has  pro- 
duced any  change  in  the  absolute  resistance  of  the  plow.  The 
impelling  force  is  theoretically  less  in  the  latter  case;  but  since 
the  wheel  has  a  load  of  107  pounds  to  carry,  we  have  to  consider 
the  efiect  of  this  load  upon  a  small  wheel,  arising  from  friction 
and  the  resistance  it  will  encounter  by  sinking  more  or  less  into 
the  subsoil. 

Mr.  Stephens  has  ascertained  from  experiment  that  the  differ- 
ence of  force  required  to  draw  a  wheel  twelve  inches  in  diameter, 
loaded  as  above  described,  and  again  when  unloaded,  over  a  tol- 
erably firm  soil,  is  equal  to  22  pounds,  a  quantity  exceeding  one 
and  a  half  times  the  amount  of  saving  that  would  accrue  by  adopt- 
ing this  supposed  horizontal  draught  with  a  wheel.  Having  thus 
found  the  amount  of  draught  at  two  extremities  of  a  -scale,  the 
one  being  the  oblique  draught,  in  common  use,  at  an  angle  of  20 
deg.,  the  other  deduced  from  this  through  the  medium  of  the 
established  principles  of  oblique  forces,  and  the  latter  producing 
a  saving  of  one  twenty-fourth  of  the  motive  force  while  it  is 
encumbered  with  an  additional  resistance  arising  from  the  support 
or  wheel.  It  necessarily  follows  that  at  all  intermediate  angles 
of  draught,  or  at  any  angle  whatever  where  the  principle  of 
the  parallelogram  of  forces  finds  place — and  it  will  find  place 
in  all  cases  where  wheels  yielding  any  support  are  applied  to  the 
plow  under  the  beam — there  must  necessarily  be  an  increase  in 


174 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


the  amount  of  resistance  to  the  motive  force.  The  diagram, 
Fio-.  82,  will  make  this  important  matter  still  more  intelligible. 
Let  a  be  the  point  of  resistance  of  a  plow's  body,  b  the  point 
of  the  beam,  c  the  position  of  the  horses'  shoulders,  and  a  d  the 
horizontal  line;  then  will  c  a  d  he  the  angle  of  draught,  equal 

g 


J^/^.  82. 

20  deg.  Let  the  circle  e  represent  a  wheel  placed  under  the 
beam,  which  is  supported  by  a  stem  or  shears,  here  represented 
by  the  line  e  h.  In  this  position  the  point  of  the  beam,  which  is 
also  the  point  of  draught,  lies  in  the  line  of  draught;  the  wheel, 
therefore,  bears  no  load,  but  is  simply  in  place,  and  has  no  effect 
on  the  draught;  the  motive  force,  therefore,  continues  to  be  407 
pounds. 

Suppose,  now,  the  point  of  the  beam  to  be  raised  to  a,  so  that 
the  line  of  draught,  g  c,  may  be  horizontal;  and  since  the  line  of 
drauo;ht  lies  now  out  of  the  oris^inal  line,  a  b  c,  and  has  assumed 
that  oi  a  g  c,  g  being  now  supported  on  the  produced  stem,  e  g, 
of  the  wheel,  draw  g  i  perpendicular  to  «  c  and  complete  the 
parallelogram,  a  i  g  k;  the  side,  a  i,  will  still  represent  the  origi- 
nal motive  force  of  407  pounds,  but  by  the  change  of  direction 
of  the  line  of  draught,  the  required  force  will  now  be  represented 
by  the  diagonal,  a  g,  of  the  parallelogram,  equal  to  425  pounds, 
and  .9^  c  is  a  continuation  of  this  force  in  a  horizontal  direction. 
The  draft  is  therefore  increased  by  18  pounds.  Complete  also 
the  parallelogram,  a  I  g  m,  and  as  the  diagonal,  a  g — the  line  of 
draught  last  found — is  equal  to  425  pounds,  the  side,  I  g,  of  the 
parallelogram  will  represent  the  vertical  pressure  of  the  beam 
upon  the  wheel,  e,  equal  to  about  250  pounds,  which,  from  Mr. 
Stephens'  experiments,  may  be  valued  at  50  pounds  of  additional 
resistance,  making  the  whole  resistance  to  the  motion  475  pounds, 
and  being  a  total  increase  arising  from  the  introduction  of  a  wheel 
in  this  position  of  68  pounds.     Having  here  derived  a  maxiunim — 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  175 

no  doubt  an  extreme  case — and  the  usual  angle  of  20  deg.  as  a 
minimum,  we  can  predicate  that,  at  any  angle  intermediate  to 
lab  and  /  a  g^  the  resistance  can  never  be  reduced  to  the  mini- 
mum of  407  pounds.  Hence  it  follows,  as  a  corollary,  that 
ivheels  placed  under  the  beam  can  never  lessen  the  resistance  of  the 
plow;  but,  on  the  contrary,  must  in  all  cases  increase  the  resist- 
ance to  the  motive  force  more  or  less,  according  to  the  degree  of 
pressure  that  is  brought  to  bear,  and  this  will  be  proportional  to 
the  line  of  the  angle  in  the  resultant,  a  g,  of  the  line  of  draught. 

We  have  now  finished  the  discussion  of  the  wheel  question  on 
theoretical  principles,  deeming  it  best  to  introduce  no  disturbing 
questions  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  reader  until  all  that  we 
had  to  say  under  that  head  was  brought  to  a  close. 

We  may  now  remark  that  our  theoretical  views  are  based  upon 
a  uniform  motion,  a  uniform  soil  and  a  homogeneous  texture,  but 
such  a  coincidence  of  conditions  is  rarely  met  with  in  practice. 
Some  portions  of  the  soil  are  wet,  while  others  are  dry;  some 
parts  are  hilly,  and  others  level;  some  parts  are  adhesive,  and 
others  are  crumbling;  some  are  stony,  others  full  of  roots.  The 
instances  are  indeed  rare  where  there  is  a  perfect  uniformity  in 
the  conditions  which  are  essential  to  bring  it  into  conformity  with 
theory. 

There  are  few  questions  connected  with  plowing  which  have 
been  more  energetically  or  more  persistently  disputed  than  that 
between  wheel  and  swing  plows.  The  Scotch  plowmen  have  been 
especially  pugnacious,  doing  battle  for  the  swing  plow  with  the 
utmost  vehemence.  The  English  plowmen  have  been  equally 
certain  that  the  wheel  was  essential  to  good  plowing.  While  the 
Americans,  thinking  little  about  the  matter  and  saying  less,  have 
instinctively  adopted  them. 

The  advocates  of  the  swing  plow  claim  the  following  advan- 
tages. ^ 

First — It  educates  a  better  class  of  workmen.  Almost  any 
one,  after  the  practice  of  one  or  two  days,  can  use  a  wheel  plow 
and  do  pretty  good  work.  None  but  a  first-class  workman  can 
make  good  work  with  a  swing  plow. 

'  Second — Its  depth  can  be  regulated  by  the  proper  adjustment 
of  the  whiflie-trees  in  the  clevis,  or  by  increasing  the  length  of 
the  traces. 

Third — The  plowman  can  regulate  the  action  of  the  point  by 
bearing  upon  or  lifting  up  the  handles. 


176  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Fourth — It  is  more  simple  in  its  construction  and  less  in  cost. 

Fifth — It  can  be  used  across  ridges,  and  under  a  much  greater 
variety  of  circumstances  than  the  wheel  plow. 

Sixth — It  requires  less  power. 

The  advocates  of  wheel  plows  claim  the  following  advantages 
for  their  favorite  implement: 

Fi7'st — The  plowing  can  be  effected  with  more  ease  to  the 
plowman. 

Second — The  work  can  be  performed  with  much  greater  accu- 
racy; the  depth  is  more  uniform  and  the  sole  is  kept  more  level. 

Third — Where  very  shallow  or  very  deep  plowing  is  required 
it  can  be  better  done  with  a  wheel  than  with  a  skim  plow,  and 
also  where  the  land  is  hard  and  stony. 

Let  us  briefly  consider  these  conflicting  allegations: 

First — It  is  doubtless  true  that  a  swing  plow  requires  a  more 
skillful  plowman  than  a  wheel  plow,  but  this,  in  a  country  where 
skilled  plowmen  are  so  rare  as  they  are  in  this,  is  an  objection 
rather  than  an  advantage.  No  one  denies  that  a  poor  workman 
can  do  very  much  better  work  with  a  wheel  plow  than  with  a 
swing  plow,  and  this,  in  our  judgment,  settles  this  point  in  their 
favor. 

Second — The  alleged  capacity  for  adjustment  is  true,  but  it  is 
equally  true  of  the  wheel  plow. 

Third — This  allegation  must  also  be  admitted,  but  it  is  done 
at  a  great  expense  of  friction  upon  the  team,  and  of  great  labor  to 
the  plowman,  which  increases  the  wear  of  the  plow.  The  use  of 
the  wheel  obviates  the  necessity  of  all  this,  and  therefore  we 
think  that  in  this  respect  wheels  have  the  advantage. 

Fourth — This  must  be  admitted,  but  the  advantage  in  this 
respect  is  so  slight  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  taking  into  the 
account. 

Fifth — This  assertion  must  be  taken  with  some  limitations.  In 
cases  where  the  rock  lies  at  varying  depths,  sometimes  within 
three  or  four  inches  of  the  surface,  at  others  at  a  greater  depth, 
in  cutting  across  dead  fallows  where  the  surfiice  is  rough,  and 
hard  clods  interrupt  the  even  action  of  the  wheels,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  swing  plow  would  do  best.  In  crossing  steep 
ridges  and  furrows  the  action  of  the  ascending  wheel  raises  the 
share  out  of  the  furrow,  while  in  descending  it  plunges  deeper 
into  the  ridge.     This,  however,  occurs  only  in  extreme  cases,  and 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  177 

to  a  considerable  degree  the  same  efiect  attends  the  swing  plow 
unless  it  is  managed  by  plowmen  more  expert  than  are  often 
found  in  England  or  even  in  Scotland,  and  of  whom  scarce  a  score 
could  be  found  in  the  State  of  New  York.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  stony  land,  or  where  the  soil  is  obstructed  by  roots,  it  must  be 
confessed  on  all  hands  that  a  wheel  is  of  the  greatest  advantage. 

8ixth — The  assertion  that  the  wheel  plow  requires  more  power 
than  the  swing  is  completely  disproved  by  the  most  accurate  and 
frequently  repeated  experiments. 

We  have  shown  by  geometrical  reasoning  that  the  wheel  adds 
to  the  draught  of  the  plow  when  constantly  pressed  upon  by  the 
trim  of  the  plow;  but  this  ought  never  to  be  allowed,  and  will 
never  occur  in  level  and  tolerably  homogeneous  soils,  when  the 
draught  is  properly  adjusted.  The  pressure  will  only  occur  in 
coincidence  with  the  occurrence  of  inequalities;  but  on  the  other 
hand,  these  inequalities  must  be  overcome  by  the  pressure  of  the 
plowman's  hands,  which,  acting  on  a  long  lever,  increases  the 
friction  in  a  greater  degree  than  the  wheel,  and  therefore  augments 
the  friction  of  the  plow  in  a  greater  degree  also. 

Mr.  Hand  ley,  in  a  paper  which  received  the  prize  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  details  a  series  of  experiments  that  he  per- 
formed with  a  view  to  the  determination  of  this  question. 

Tavo  wheel  plow^s  were  tried  in  connection  with  two  swino- 
plows.  The  average  draught  of  the  wheel  plows  was  288  pounds, 
while  the  average  draught  of  the  swing  plows  was  341  pounds, 
making  an  average  difference  of  53  pounds  in  favor  of  the  wheel 
plows. 

Mr.  Handley's  experiments  were  performed  at  Ipswich,  in  1838. 
The  average  weight  of  the  wheel  plows  was  220  pounds;  the 
average  weight  of  the  swing  plows  was  135  pounds.  It  was 
farther  established  at  this  trial  that  the  draught  of  a  plow  is  not 
increased  in  an  equal  ratio  w^ith  its  weight,  for  on  loading  one  of 
the  wheel  plows  with  112  pounds,  or  51  per  cent  additional 
Aveight,  the  draught  was  only  increased  33  pounds,  or  12  per  cent. 

These  trials  were  repeated  by  Mr.  Pusey  in  1840,  with  the 
following  results:  The  average  draught  of  four  swing  ploAvs, 
Avorking  a  deep,  strong  loam,  was  441  pounds,  while  that  of  the 
four  Avheel  ploAvs,  working  in  the  same  soil,  was  434  pounds. 
shoAving  an  average  difference  of  7  pounds  in  favor  of  the  wheel 
plows  in  this  kind  of  soil.     In  a  broAvn  loamy  sand  the  average 

12 


178  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

draught  of  the  four  swing  plows  was  245  pounds;  that  of  the  four 
wheel  plows  was  210  pounds,  showing  an  average  of  35  pounds 
in  favor  of  the  wheel  plows.  In  a  blue  clay  soil  the  average 
draught  of  the  four  swing  plows  was  686  pounds;  the  average 
draught  of  the  four  Avheel  plows  was  630  pounds,  showing  a  differ- 
ence in  favor  of  the  wheel  plows  of  56  pounds.  In  a  sandy  loam 
the  difference  in  favor  of  the  wheel  plows  was  49  pounds.  The 
average  difierence  in  these  four  trials,  in  as  many  different  soils, 
was  37  pounds,  or  10  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  wheel  plows. 

Mr.  Handley  accounts  for  this  superiority  of  wheel  plows  as 
follows: 

"  As  regards  the  cause  of  the  diminished  force  required  by  the 
wheel,  compared  with  the  swing  plow,  it  appears  to  me  to  be 
principally,  if  not  fully,  explained  by  the  more  uniform  horizontal 
motion  communicated  to  the  share  and  sole  of  the  former  through 
the  regulating  medium  of  the  wheels  at  the  fore  part  of  the 
beam,  which  diminish  the  shocks  arising  from  the  continued 
vibrations  of  the  implement  when  balanced  between  the  hand  of 
the  plowman  and  the  back  and  shoulders  of  the  horse.  It  is  not 
contended  that  Avheels  so  situated  act  the  part  of  lessening  the 
friction  between  the  sole  and  the  soil;  but  they  keep  the  rubbing 
part  more  truly  to  its  depth,  and  maintain  its  horizontal  action 
more  correctly;  whereas  the  horses  affect  a  swing  plow  at  every 
step  by  the  irregularity  of  their  proper  movement,  which  has  to 
be  counteracted  by  the  effort  of  the  man  at  the  opposite  end. 
Thus  conflicting  forces  are  momentarily  produced,  and  continual 
elevations  and  depressions  of  the  point  of  the  share  take  place, 
together  with  deviations  from  the  flat  position  of  the  sole,  which 
should  be  retained  at  right  angles  to  the  perpendicular;  and  to 
remedy  which  unskillful  plowmen  bear  unequally  on  the  stilts, 
which  produces  a  lateral  pressure  landwards,  and  consequently  a 
great  amount  of  friction  along  the  whole  of  the  left  side  plane  of 
the  plow.  However  small  may  be  the  eflbrts  of  the  plowman  to 
keep  his  plow  ^  sivim.ming  fair,^  those  efforts  must  be  attended 
ivith  increased  resistance,  and  consequently  with  increased  resist- 
ance to  the  horses." 

It  is  not  pretended  that,  in  a  wheel  plow,  none  of  these  irregu- 
larities of  motion  exist;  on  the  contrary,  the  dynamometer  shows 
them  to  be  very  considerable,  but  less  in  degree  than  in  the  swing 
plow.     The  oscillations  of  the  index  of  the  dynamometer  are,  as 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  179 

might  be  expected,  very  great  when  applied  to  a  plow.  The  point 
of  a  plowshare  may  be  readily  supposed,  at  one  instant,  to  have 
burst  a  sod,  which,  opening  and  being  raised  upwards,  offers  for 
several  inches  but  a  trifling  resistance  to  its  progress;  it  again 
meets  the  obstacle,  which  is  again  overcome.  It  is  similar  with 
roots,  stones  and  other  varying  impediments,  and  thus,  at  every 
step  of  the  horse  (whose  motion  is  also  a  series  of  impulses),  the 
draught,  as  exhibited  by  the  dynamometer,  is  continually  and 
largely  varying. 

These  are  effects  arising  from  the  nature  of  animal  force  and 
of  the  soil;  they  are  necessarily  common  to  both  plows,  but 
appear  to  be  augmented  in  the  swing,  compared  with  the  wheel 
plow,  and  sufiiciently  account  for  the  diminished  draught  of  the 
latter  as  shown  in  the  experiments. 

We  think  we  have  now  shown  that  the  claims  of  the  advocates 
of  swing  ploAvs  are  mostly  invalid,  while  those  of  the  friends  of 
the  wheel  plow  are  shown  to  be  founded  in  reason  and  experi- 
ence, and  the  practice  of  American  farmers  is  therefore  fully 
justified. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  we  desire  to  quote  a  statement  of 
Mr.  Handley,  which  very  strikingly  illustrates  the  action  of  the 
plowman  on  the  draught  of  the  plow. 

"  In  one  of  my  trials  I  substituted  for  a  first-rate  plowman  one 
who,  though  no  novice,  was  decidedly  his  inferior,  and  who  held 
the  same  plow  for  a  bout,  during  which  he  exerted  his  best  abili- 
ties, aware  of  the  comparison  about  to  be  instituted,  and  yet  the 
draught  w^as  in,  his  hands,  increased  six  per  cent,  and  I  have  no 
doubt,  had  he  continued  to  hold  the  plow  for  an  entire  day,  it 
would  have  been  considerably  more.  This  man,  though  inferior 
to  the  other,  possessed  skill  above  the  average  of  plowman  usually 
employed.  Had  he  held  a  plow  with  wheels  there  would  proba- 
bly have  been  no  difference  in  the  draught  between  the  holding 
of  the  plow  by  himself  and  predecessor." 

There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  mode  of  making  and 
attaching  wheels  to  plows.  The  old  fashioned  high  gallows 
frame  may  be  seen  in  Plate  I.  This  plan,  though  capable  of 
being  used  by  a  good  plowman  so  as  to  do  good  work,  is  so 
complex  in  the  adjustment  that  in  the  hands  of  unskilled  work- 
men they  are  apt  to  consume  more  power  and  to  do  less  perfect 
work. 


180 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


A  much  better  and  simpler  plan  for  a  trvo  wheeled  plow  is  given 
in  Plate  V,  in  connection  with  the  plows  of  Messrs.  Ransome  and 

Howard.     It  is  claimed  by  many  that 

there  is  an  advantage  in  the  use  of  two 

wheels,  as  the  land  wheel  acts  as  a 

lateral   gauge   to  the  width   of  each 

furrow  as  well  as  to  the   depth,  and 

therefore    the    uniformity    of   width, 

depth  and  angle  of  the  furrow  slice 

J^iff.  S3.  thus  produced  give  a  perfect  form  to 

the  whole  operation.     The  American  form  of  the  double  wheel 

plow  is  given  in  Fig.  83. 

The  usual  form  of  the  single  wheel   is  shown  on  the  side  of 

the  plow  beam,  in  Fig.  84,  and  beneath  it 

in   Fis:.    85.     In   either   case   the    wheel 

frame   is   clasped   to   the   ^ 

beam   in    a   manner    that 

readily  admits  of  raising 

or  lowering  the  wheel  to 

J^iff,  84:  give   the   plow  any  desi-        -F'/ff.  86. 

red  depth  of  work;  and  when  adjusted  to  a  given   point  it  is 

then  made  fast  by  tightening  the  clasp. 

THE    COULTER. 

Fig.  86  shows  the  manner  of  inserting  the  coulter  through  a 
mortise  in  the  beam.  It  is  secured  by  a  wedge;  the  beam  is 
strengthened  from  splitting  by  a  diagonal  baud  passing  round  it. 
It  is  adjusted  to  the  sidv.  of  the  beam,  as  shown 


> 


Fig.  86. 


Fiff.  87. 


Fig.  88. 

in  Fig.  87,  by  a  diagonal  clamp,  which  supports  the  front  of  the 
coulter  on  the  upper  side,  and  the  back  on  the  lower  side;  the 
ends  pass  through  holes  in  an  iron  plate,  and  are  fastened  securely 
by  nuts. 

Fig.  88   is  a  form  of  the  coulter  in   which  a  circular  plate, 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows. 


181 


Jiuviiio;  a  socket  on  its  face,  which  secures  the  shank  of  the 
coulter;  is  made  to  revolve  by  the  action  of  a  screw,  thus 
cnahling  the  plowman  to  set  it  at  any  desired  angle. 

The  favorite  plans  for  raising  or  lowering  the  coulter  in  Eng- 
land are  given  in  Fig.  89,  and  also  for  changing  its  angle,  which 
will  be  readily  understood  on  inspection. 


JF'iff.  89, 

Fig.  90  represents  the  lock  coulter,  which  is  made  of  wrought 
iron,  steel  edged.  It  passes  through  the  plow  beam,  and  is  made  fast 
on  top  with  a  key,  or  with  a  nut  and  screw,  and  locks  through  the 
share  and  mould-board  where  they  join  together. 
The  adjustment  is  a  very 
strong  one,  both  for  the 
coulter  and  the  plow,  and 
fits  the  implement  for  work- 
ing among  stones,  stumps 
and  roots,  as  the  coulter 
cannot  be  turned  out  of' 
place  or  broken  by  such 
obstacles.  The  revolving 
coulter  is  represented  in  Fig.  91.  It  consists  of  a  steel  plate, 
revolving  on  an  axis,  and  having  a  stem  which  is  clasped  to  the 
beam,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  In  some  cases  the  coulter  is  con- 
veniently replaced  by  the  fin  share  represented  in  Fig.  92.  It  is 
used  for  plowing  sod  lands  infested  with  roots  and  stumps  or 
stones,  where  the  sward  cutter  cannot  be  used  without  danger  of 
getting  bent  or  misplaced.  It  is  also  useful  when  plowing  in 
stubble  or  coarse  manure,  serving  to  keep  the  plow  from  clogging 
at  the  standard.  It  separates  the  furrow  slice  from  the  unplowed 
land  easier  and  more  smoothly  than  it  could  be  done  by  the 
breast  of  the  plow.     Much  depends  upon  the  form  and  size  of 


jFlff.  90. 


JPig.  97. 


182  Report  on  Trials  of  Flows. 

the  coulter  and  its  adjustment.  It  should  be  made  of  iron,  faced 
with  steel,  and  of  sufficient  bulk  to  stand  firmly  in  the  position 
in  which  it  is  set  for  its  work;  not  to  bend  either  to  the  right  hand 
or  to  the  left.  The  most  approved 
English  coulters  are  about  two  and 
a  half  inches  wide,  and  formed  by 
the  meeting  of  two  curves,  as  in 
Fig.  89  .  The  land  side  of  the 
coulter  should  be  flat,  and  the 
opposite  side  a  gradual  taper  from 
the  edge  to  the  back.  The  thick- 
ness must  be  determined  by  the  ^f'^-  ^2. 
strength  of  the  work  it  has  to  perform.  American  coulters  are 
generally  made  either  straight  edged,  as  in  Fig.  87,  or  slightly 
curved  backward  from  the  point.  When  secured,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  89,  it  is  kneed  inward,  so  as  to  adjust  it  to  the  plane  of  the 
land  side. 

Having  now  considered  the  various  forms  of  the  coulter,  we 
pass  on  to  a  consideration  of  its  function  and  its  adjustment. 

Mr.  Stephens  has  asserted  that  the  force  required  to  draw  a 
coulter  seven  inches  deep  in  the  earth  requires  no  more  power 
than  it  does  to  draw  a  plow  making  a  furrow  seven  inches  deep 
and  ten  inches  wide,  without  a  coulter.  This  experiment,  we 
believe,  stands  alone,  unsupported  by  the  testimony  of  any  other 
observer.  We  had  desired  to  verify  it  at  Utica,  with  every  pre- 
caution to  insure  accuracy,  but  were  prevented  from  doing  so  by 
the  unexpected  and  untimely  removal  of  the  dynamometer  from 
thence. 

The  subject  being  one  of  such  great  importance,  we  give  -Mr. 
Stephens'  statements  in  his  own  words: 

"  On  a  subject  which  has  of  late  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion, I  was  desirous  of  obtaining  information  from  experiments 
alone  on  the  actual  implement;  and,  to  attain  this  more  fully,  I 
determined  on  analyzing  the  resistance  as  far  as  possible.  With 
this  view,  a  plow  was  prepared  whose  coulter  was  descended 
seven  inches  below  the  line  of  the  sole,  and  fitted  to  stand  at  any 
required  angle.  This  plow,  with  its  sole  upon  the  surface  of  a 
two-year  old  lea,  and  the  coulter  alone  in  the  so^7,  the  bridle 
having  been  adjusted  to  make  it  swim  without  any  undue  tendency, 
the  force  required  to  draw  this  experimental  instrument,  as  indi- 
cated ])y  the  dyii!inionieter,  was   twenty-six  imperial  stones  (350 


Line  of  Draught  of  Plows.  183 

pounds),  and  no  sensible  difference  was  observed  in  a  range  of  angles 
varying  from  45  to  70  degrees.  This  coulter,  having  been 
removed,  the  plow  was  drawn  along  the  surface  of  the  field,  when 
the  ploAv  indicated  eight  stones  (112  pounds),  the  usual  draught 
of  a  plow  on  the  surface. 

"Another  well-trimmed  ploAV  Avas  at  work  in  the  same  ridge, 
taking  a  furrow  ten  by  seven  inches,  and  its  draught  was  also 
350  pounds.  The  furrow  thus  taken  produced,  of  course,  a  slice  of 
very  rough  plowmauship;  and  though  it  exhi])ited,  by  a  negative, 
the  essential  use  of  the  coulter — the  clean  cutting  of  the  slice 
from  the  solid  ground — the  whole  question  of  the  operation  and 
working  efiects  of  the  coulter  are  thus  placed  in  a  very  anomolous 
position.'- 

If  the  experiment  of  Mr.  Stephens  is  reliable,  it  would  seem 
that  the  extreme  care  which  plowmakers  have  taken  to  adjust  the 
coulter  accurately  to  the  various  parts  of  the  plow  is  quite  unnec- 
essary, and  that  the  reasons  given  for  their  respective  plans  rest 
upon  a  purely  imaginary  foundation. 

Farmers  having  observed  that  a  drawing  cut  requires  less  power 
to  separate  a  solid  body  than  a  direct  cut  by  pressure — as  the  saw 
cuts  easier  than  the  chisel — have  imagined  that  they  obtained 
such  a  drawing  cut  by  giving  a  long  rake  to  the  coulter;  but  on 
looking  closely  at  the  matter  it  will  be  seen  that  this  gives  no 
drawing  action  whatever  to  the  cut  of  the  coulter. 

There  is  no  upward  and  downward  motion,  no  reciprocating 
action  as  when  we  draw  a  knife  across  a  loaf  of  bread,  but  it  is 
simply  a  cut  efiected  by  horizontal  pressure  operating  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  blade  just  as  when  the  edge  of  a  chisel  is 
pressed  into  wood  by  the  blow  of  a  mallett.  There  is  therefore 
no  economy  of  power  by  inserting  the  coulter  at  a  high  angle 
with  the  sole,  the  resistance  so  far  as  the  splitting  of  homogeneous 
earth  is  concerned  is  precisely  the  same  whether  the  angle  is  45 
deg.  or  80  deg. 

Nevertheless,  in  practice,  arising  from  other  causes  than  the 
splitting  of  the  earth,  there  are  great  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  a  variation  of  the  angle  between  45  deg.  and  85  deg.,  and 
incidentally  there  is  a  considerable  saving  of  power. 

Thus  in  plowing  stubble  land  which  is  very  foul  the  dry  grass 
and  butts  of  the  straw  would  collect  transversely  on  the  edge  of 
the  coulter.  In  this  case  the  draft  is  frequently  increased  by  150 
pound.s;   by  giving  it  it  a  long  rake  the  stubble  is  slioved  upward 


184  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

and  the  edge  is  kept  clear.  So  when  the  ground  is  full  of  roots, 
when  the  coulter  is  set  slanting  the  roots  will  slide  upward,  and 
the  drawing  action  will  cut  them;  whereas,  if  the  coulter  was  set 
at  80  deg.  it  would  draw  them  out.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
used  for  plowing  sod  or  clover  the  furrow  will  be  much  cleaner 
when  the  angle  is  75  deg.  or  80  deg.,  as  it  will  not  press  the 
grass  and  roots  upwards  before  they  can  be  cut  through. 

There  is  one  rule  pretty  generally  observed  in  relation  to  the 
coulter,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  which  is  that  the  land  side  fticc 
shall  always  be  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  land  side  of  the  plow. 

Another  rule  pretty  generally  adopted  is  that  at  the  point  where 
the  coulter  meets  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  edge  should  stand 
about  on(;-quarter  of  an  inch  landward  of  the  plane  of  the  land- 
side  of  the  plow. 

Li  the  plows  made  by  Prouty  &  Mears,  and  those  of  some  other 
makers,  the  reverse  of  this  rule  is  adopted,  the  coulter  being  set 
inwards  toward  the  mould-board  about  half  an  inch  at  the  point 
where  the  coulter  touches  the  surface,  as  shown  in  Fig.  93,  and 
extending  from  thence  landward  so  that  the  point  of  the  coulter 
is  vertical  over  the  point 
of  the  share.  This  leaves 
a  small  triangle  whose 
base  is  half  an  inch  and 
whose  altitude  is  the 
depth  of  the  furrow  to 

cut  off  by  the  shin  of  the  Jf'iff.  93. 

plow;  this  is  converted  into  powder,  which  rolls  over  on  the  face 
of  the  furrow  slice  and  covers  the  grass,  which  sometimes  sticks 
up  in  the  angle  of  the  slice. 

The  vertical  elevation  of  the  point  of  the  coulter  above  the 
plane  of  the  sole  is  not  well  settled.  In  England  it  is  generally 
put  from  one  to  two  inches  above,  in  America  from  three  to  four 
inches  above  it. 

Then  English  and  Scotch  usually  put  the  point  of  the  coulter 
vertically  over  the  point  of  the  share,  but  in  America  it  is  placed 
mostly  from  two  to  four  inches  in  advance  of  it. 

We  think  there  is  no  absolute  rule  which  can  be  laid  down 
upon  these  points.  The  nature  of  the  soil  to  be  plowed  will 
influence  the  set  of  the  coulter  very  considerably,  and  the  deter- 
mination of  this  part  of  the  trimming  of  the  plow  may  be  safely 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  plowman. 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow.  185 

CHAPTER  IX 

OF  THE  MECHANICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  PLOW. 

In  order  to  fulfill  the  indications  described  in  the  preceding 
pages,  it  is  necessary  to  form  the  plow  so  that,  in  sandy  land,  or 
in  light  crumbly  loams,  the  furrow  shall  be  completely  inverted, 
so  that  the  surface  of  the  soil  shall  be  laid  upon  the  bottom,  and 
that  which  was  upon  the  bottom  shall  be  turned  upon  the  top. 

In  stiffer  soils  it  is  necessary  to  lap  the  furrows,  so  that  the 
upper  surface  shall  form  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  base, 
when  the  lower  edge  of  the  last  plowed  slice  will  lap  over  one- 
third  of  the  preceding  slice. 


As  will  be  seen  on  Fig.  94,  where  the  lines  a  c  and  c?y  are  nine 
inches  long,  and  the  lines  a  g  and  d  h  are  six  inches  long,  and  the 
lines  a  h  and  d  e  are  each  three  inches  long,  or  one-third  of  the 
length  of  the  lines  a  c  and  d  e,  which  represent  the  breadth  of 
the  furrow.  When  the  furrow  slices  are  laid  in  this  position,  the 
line  6  c  is  always  equal  to  the  line  c  e,  and  the  line  eftofi. 

It  may  be  shown  by  the  following  reasoning  which  we  borrow 
from  Mr.  Stephcus,  that  this  position  insures  the  exposure  of  the 
greatest  possible  surface  of  earth  to  the  atmosphere.  It  also 
elevates  the  maximum  cubical  mass  of  earth,  and  makes  the 
deepest  seed-bed  when  the  angles  are  drawn  off  by  the  action  of 
the  harrow. 

Let  a  b,  Fig.  95,  represent  the  breadth  of  a  ten-inch  furrow 
slice,  and  describe  the  semicircle,  a  c  b,  upon  it  as  a  diameter. 
From  this  well  known  property  of  the  circle,  that  the  angle  in  a 
semicircle  is  a  right  angle,  every  triangle  formed  upon  the 
diameter  as  a  base,  will  be  right  angled;  and  the  only  isosceles 
triangle  that  can  l)e  formed  within  it  will  be  that  Avhich  has,  c  d 


186 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


equal  a  b,  the  breadth  of  the  slice,  which  must  always  be  equal 
to  the  distance  between  the  apices  of  two  contiguous  furrows. 

Complete  the  parallelogram,  a  c  cl  e,  which  will  represent  the 
transverse  section  of  a  rectangular  slice,  whose  breadth  is  ten 
inches,  and  whose  two  exposed  faces,  a  c  and  c  b,  lie  at  angles  of 
45  degrees,  and  their  breadth,  as  well  as  the  area  of  the  triangle, 
a  b  c,  will  be  a  maximum.  In  order  to  prove  this,  let  a  section 
of  another  slice  be  formed,  whose  exposed  side,  a  f,  shall  be 
greater  than  the  corresponding  side,  a  c,  of  the  former,  and  let 
this  be  taken  at  eight  inches.    Fromy,  through  the  point  6,  draw 


f  g;  then  will  af  b  be  a  right  angle  as  before;  f  g,  being  also  made 
equal  to  ten  inches,  complete  the  parallelogram,  afgr  h,  which 
will  represent  the  transverse  section  of  a  rectangular  slice  ten 
inches  by  eight  inches,  occupying  the  same  horizontal  breadth  as 
before,  and  whose  exposed  faces  will  be  a  /  and  /  b.  Draw  the 
line  i  c  k  parallel  to  a  b,  and  passing  through  the  apex,  c,  of  the 
triangle,  a  c  b;  and  the  line  i  k,  also  parallel  to  the  line,  a  b, 
passing  through  the  apex,  /,  of  the  triangle,  a  f  b.  Here  the 
triangles,  a  c  b  and  afb,  stand  on  equal  bases,  a  b;  but  the  first 
lies  between  the  parallels  a  b  and  i  c  k,  and  the  second  between 
those  of  a  6  and  i'  k';  the  altitude,//',  therefore,  of  the  triangle 
a  f  b  is  less  than  the  altitude,  c  c',  of  the  triangle,  a  c  b.  And 
triangles  on  equal  bases  being  proportioned  to  their  altitudes,  it 
follows  that  the  triangle  afb  is  less  than  the  triangle  a  c  b,  both 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow.  187 

in  area  and  periphery.  Suppose,  again,  a  slice  whose  sides,  a  I, 
is  less  than  the  corresponding  side,  a  c,  and  let  it  be  six  inches; 
from  I  through  the  point  ^,  as  before,  draw  I  m,  and  construct  the 
parallelogram,  aim  n,  we-  shall  have  a  transverse  section  of  a 
third  slice  of  ten  by  six  inches,  whose  exposed  faces,  a  I,  lb, 
occupy  the  same  horizontal  breadth  as  before.  Here  the  triangle 
alb  lies  between  the  parallels  a  b  and  i'  k',  consequently  to  afb, 
and  less  than  a  c  b. 

This  simple  geometrical  demonstration  as  applicable  to  the  slice 
may  be  corroborated  by  the  usual  formula  of  the  triangle.  Thus 
the  altitude  of  the  triangle  acbis'^-^  =  ^  inches  ==  c  c',  and  the  side 
a  c  or  c  b  is  =  ^a  c^-{-g  c^;  or  a  c  and  c  c  being  each  equal  to  five 
inches,  a  c  or  cb  will  =  V  25  +  25  =  7  •  071  inches,  which  is  the 
depth  due  to  a  slice  of  ten  inches  in  breadth,  and  the  sum  of  the 
two  exposed  faces  will  be  7  •  071  +  2  =  14  •  142  inches. 

In  the  triangle  a  f  b,  a  b  =  10  inches,  and  a  f  =  S  inches, 
then  ab^  —  af  =fb'^,  and  the  V/^^  =  ^  inches.  The  three 
sides,  therefore,  of  this  triangle  are  ten,  eight  and  six  inches, 
and  the  altitude,//',  is  easily  found  by  the  principles  of  similar 
triangles.  Thus,  in  the  similar  triangles,  a //',/ bf',  a  b  :  a  f 
•  •  /  ^  •  //'•  The  perpendicular//'  is  therefore  =  4-8  inches, 
hence  the  exposed  surfaces  are  as  14  •  141  :  14,  and  the  altitudes 
as  5  to  4  •  8. 

Since  it  turns  out  that  a  I  is  equal  to  f  b,  and  a  5  is  common  to 
both,  it  follows  that  I  b  is  equal  to  a  /  and  the  periphery  and 
altitude  is  also  equal  and  less  in  all  respects  than  the  triangle 
a  c  b,  and  so  of  any  other  position  or  dimension. 

By  recurring  to  Fig.  94,  it  will  be  seen  that  when  the  furrow 
slices  are  laid  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  a  triangular  drain,  g  d  h, 
is  left  under  each  furrow.  This  not  only  drains  off  the  surface 
water,  but  allows  the  air  to  enter  freely  beneath  the  surface, 
which,  in  conformity  with  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding 
section,  is  of  very  great  advantage,  and  strongly  recommends  the 
adoption  of  this  mode  of  plowing  in  stiff  and  retentive  soils. 

It  will  follow,  from  what  has  been  stated,  that  the  proportion 
of  the  depth  to  the  width  must  always  be  in  the  ratio  of  2  to  3. 
Six  inches  deep  and  nine  inches  broad,  or  seven  inches  by  ten, 
are  the  most  usual  proportions. 

Fig.  96  illustrates  the  action  of  the  plow  in  this  style  of  plow- 
ing; a  b  is  the  exterior  edge  of  the  slice  which  is  being  turned; 
e  f  is  the  edsje  along  which  the  land  side  of  the  plow  has  just 


188 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


passed;  c  d  is  the  inner  edge  of  the  slice;  g  h  is  the  sole  of  the 
furrows,  and  ih^lm  are  slices  which  have  been  previously  turned 
over. 


I^lff.  96. 

The  exact  mechanism  of  the  rotation  of  the  slice  is  clearly 
illustrated  in  Fig.  97.  Let  abed  represent  the  transverse  section 
of  a  furrow  slice  nine  inches  wide  and  six  inches  deep,  which  it 
is  proposed  to  raise.  The  point  of  the  plow  enters  at  the  point 
d;  as  nothing  is  cut  or  broken  before  it,  it  must  necessarily  take 
a  greater  strain  and  sustain  a  greater  amount  of  abrasion  than  any 
other  portion  of  the  implement.  The  entrance  of  the  point  gives 
an  upward  tension  to  the  slice,  which  facilitates  the  action  of  the 


horizontally  cutting  edge  of  the  feather,  which  severs  the  slice  at 
the  bottom  from  the  sole,  d  c,  as  it  advances  forward;  at  the  same 
time  the  slice  is  raised  from  its  centre,  c,  and  the  outer  and  under 
corners  traverses  the  arc  of  a  circle,  d  eg  k.  The  parallelogram, 
c  e  sf,  shows  the  position  of  the  slice  when  the  point  d  has  been 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow.  189 

vertically  elevated  four  inches  to  the  point  e.  At  the  point  g  it 
has  been  vertically  elevated  eight  inches,  and  the  position  of  the 
slice  is  shown  in  the  parallelogram  c  g  Ji  i.  When  the  point  d 
has  been  i-aised  through  an  entire  quadrant,  the  line  cZ  c  is  repre- 
sented by  k  c,  and  the  line  b  chy  c  m.  The  vertical  line  of  the 
mould-board  in  contact  with  the  line  k  c  is  called  the  zero  line, 
and  the  point  touched  by  the  angle  at  k  is  called  the  zero  point. 
This  point  is  of  importance,  as  from  it  all  measurements  of  plows 
are  usually  made.  Up  to  this  time  the  slice  has  turned  on  the 
centre  c,  but  on  its  further  passage  to  the  positions  o  p  n  m  and 
q  r  m  s,  the  centre  of  rotation  is  the  point  m,  until  it  attains  to 
an  angle  of  45  degrees,  when  the  slice  rests  upon  the  edge  of  the 
preceding  furrow.  If  the  whole  sole  of  the  slice  were  to  be 
severed  by  the  share,  it  is  clear  that  it  would  be  very  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  lay  the  slice  accurately.  The  plow  would  act 
as  a  simple  wedge,  pushing  the  slice  over  to  the  furrow  side  from 
the  land  side;  it  would  not  coincide  with  the  twist  of  the  mould- 
board,  and  therefore  the  transverse  cracks  which  it  receives,  and 
which  is  so  essential  to  its  pulverization,  would  not  be  communi- 
cated to  itj  it  would  frequently  leave  it  in  a  vertical  position,  and 
sometimes,  especially  on  side-hills,  the  furrow  would  fall  back 
into  its  old  position.  To  prevent  this,  the  rear  angle  of  the 
feather  should  never  be  further  from  the  plane  of  the  land  side 
than  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  the  breadth  of  the  furrow, 
that  is,  if  the  furrow  is  ten  inches  wide,  the  rear  angle  of  the 
feather  should  be  from  five  to  seven  and  one-half  inches  from  the 
plane  of  the  land  side,  measuring  across  the  sole  of  the  plow  by 
the  shortest  line  between  them.  The  strip  thus  left  unsevered 
on  the  furrow  side  holds  the  furrow  to  its  place  and  forms  a  sort 
of  hinge  upon  which  it  turns. 

We  have  hitherto  confined  our  attention  exclusively  to  furrow 
slices  whose  transverse  sections  are  rectangles;  but  many  plow- 
makers  and  plowmen  insist  that  a  crested  furrow,  whose  trans- 
verse section  is  a  trapezoid,  is  better  than  the  rectangular  furrow 
because  it  forms  a  deeper  seed-bed.  This  form  is  produced  when 
the  rear  angle  of  the  feather  lies  in  a  plane  from  one  inch  to  an 
inch  and  a  quarter  higher  than  the  plane  of  the  point. 

Fig.  98  shows  that  those  who  claim  a  better  seed-bed  for  a 
trapezoidal  furrow  are  mistaken.  A  series  of  triangles,  fgf  and 
f  g'f",  etc.,  are  left  undisturbed  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow, 
which   are  eft'ectually  cut  up  by  a  plow  turning  a  rectangular 


190 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


furrow  slice.  Again,  the  side  a  b  being  nine  inches,  and  the  side 
c  (Z  a  fraction  longer;  the  side  h  d  six  inches,  and  the  side  a  c  four 
and  a  half  inches,  it  is  evident  that  less  loose  earth  is  provided 
for  the  seed-bed  by  a  trapezoidal  slice  than  a  rectangular  one  by 
the  triangle,  d  e  c,  which  varies  from  one-seventh  to  one-tenth  of 
the  entire  section,  according  to  the  elevation  of  the  rear  angle  of 
the  feather. 

a.  *i 


The  practical  rule  proposed  by  Mr.  Stephens  for  the  formation 
of  the  sole  of  the  plow,  with  reference  to  the  formation  of  rec- 
tangular furrow  slices,  is  that  the  height  of  the  shield — the 
surface  of  the  share — on  the  land  side,  opposite  to  the  rear  angle 
of  the  feather,  be  two  and  a  half  inches  above  the  line  of  the  sole 
shoe;  that  the  share  be  one-half  an  inch  below  the  line  of  the 
sole  shoe,  and  not  exceeding  one-half  an  inch  to  landward  of  the 
land  side  plane;  and  that  no  part  of  the  edge  of  the  feather 
should  be  more  than  three-eighths  of  an  inch  above  the  plane  of 
the  sole  shoe,  that  plane  being  always  understood  to  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  land  side  plane. 

Another  style  of  plowing,  known  as  sod  and  subsoil  plowing, 
which  was  introduced  into  this  country  about  the  year  1850,  has 
worked  its  way  very  largely  into  public  fovor,  and  is  probably 
destined  to  receive  a  still  greater  popularity  as  time  continues  to 
reveal  its  merits. 

Fig.  99  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  work  is  performed.  A 
skim  plow  is  attached  to  the  fore  part  of  the  beam,  by  clamps, 
which  turns  over  from  two  to  three  inches,  «,  of  the  sod,  depositing 
it,  with  the  grass  downward,  on  the  sole  of  the  preceding  furrow, 
c.  A  larger  plow,  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  beam,  follows  and 
turns  over  the  rest  of  the  furrow,  6,  depositing  it,  in  a  finely  pul- 
verized condition,  on  the  top  of  the  first  or  sod  furrow.  In  this 
way  the  grass  and  weeds  on  the  surface  arc  effectually  buried. 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow. 


191 


and  are  placed  in  a  position  to  nourish  the  roots  of  the  crop  at 
the  precise  period  wlien  nourishment  is  most  needed  for  maturing 
the  crop.  This  kind  of  plowing  prepares  sod-ground  for  corn  in 
the  best  possible  manner. 


J^iff.  99. 
For  land  which  is  too  bushy  or  too  rooty  with  wild  or  swamp 
grasses,  or  where  ic  is  so  sandy  or  mellow  that  pulverization  is 
not  an  object,  a  third  style  of  plowing  is  adopted  which  requires 
a  special  form  of  the  plow. 

'%i  - 


J^ig.  WO. 

The  action  and  movement  of  the  furrow  slice  for  fiat  furrow 
sod  plowing  is  shown  in  Fig.  100,  and  requires  no  other  expla- 
nation. 


192 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


The  fourth  kind  of  plowing  is  in  stubble  or  old  land,  and  is 
generally  called  stubble  plowing.     Fig.  101  represents  this  style 


ill!llJUIlii|ii!|iiiiiiiiiiin llimiiiillhllliillll 


J^iff.  /Of, 

of  plowing.  The  twist  of  the  furrow  is  more  sharp  and  decided 
than  in  sod  plowing,  as  the  soil  is  less  compact,  and  can  be  pul- 
verized with  less  expenditure  of  power. 

Many  side-hills  which  are  fertile,  are  yet  so  steep  that  a  furrow 
cannot  be  turned  up  hill,  and  must  therefore  be  turned  down  hill. 
This  requires  a  plow  which  shall  permit  the  share  and  mould- 
l)oard  to  swing  alternately  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  land  side. 

Since  mowing  machines  have  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  the 
scythe,  a  demand  has  arisen  for  a  more  level  culture,  dispensing 
with  open  furrows  and  every  other  form  of  surface  obstruction. 
The  swivel  plow  being  adapted  to  meet  this  want,  its  use  has 
been  greatly  extended,  and  few  farmers  now  feel  that  they  can 
dispense  with  them. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  plows,  but  these  five  are  sufficient  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  land,  and  no  good  farmer  can  afford  to 
dispense  with  them. 

Mr.  Holbrook  has  made  an  effort  to  dispense  with  so  great  a 
number  by  adapting  to  his  sod  plows  a  mould-board  for  stubble 
plowing,  and  a  skim  plow,  when  desired,  for  sod  and  subsoil 
plowing;  and  he  has  thus  undoubtedly  greatly  increased  the 
range  of  usefulness  of  each  plow.  Still  it  is  impossible  to  ignore 
the  fact  that  each  plow  can  only  do  perfect  work  when  taking  the 
exact  depth  and  width  of  furrow  for  which  it  was  designed,  and 
in  exact  proportion  to  its  recession  from  this  standard  does  it 
depart  from  perfect  work.  Such  being  the  fact,  we  hope  to  see 
a  very  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of  plows  owned  by 
each  farmer,  which  will  enable  them  to  do  much  better  work  in 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow. 


193 


all  positions,  and  to  grow  a  much  larger  crop  upon  an  acre  than 
they  have  ever  done  before. 

Before  entering  upon  a  consideration  of  the  parts  of  a  plow  in 
detail,  it  is  desirable  to  define  those  parts  with  accuracy,  so  that 
all  ambiguity  and  misapprehension  may  be  avoided 
I 


Fig.  i02. 

Fig.  102  represents  Mr.  Holbrook's  Sod  and  Subsoil  Plow. 
A  B  is  the  beam;  g  i  the  skim  plow;  s  t  its  standard;  li  i  its  fin 
coulter;  j  the  wheel;  h  the  bridle;  a  the  point  of  the  plow;  ach 
the  share;  h  a' the  feather;  h  the  rear  angle  of  the  feather;  «' the 
front  angle  of  the  feather;  e  u  c  v  the  mould-board;  f  v  the  sole 
of  the  mould-board.  The  portion  of  the  mould-board  in  contact 
with  the  furrow  slice,  at  the  instant  that  it  assumes  the  vertical 
]30sition,  is  called  the  zero  line,  and  is  marked  on  the  figure.  The 
portion  of  the  mould-board  in  the  rear  of  this  zero  line  is  called 
the  wing  of  the  mould-board;  d  uis,  the  standard;  u  c  a  the  line 
where  the  portion  of  the  mould-board  in  front  of  the  standard, 
which  coincides  with  the  land  side,  is  called  the  shin.  The  curved 
portion  of  the  plow,  included  in  il  v  «,  is  the  breast.  The  furrow 
side  of  the  share  is  denominated  the  shield.  The  side  of  the 
figure  towards  the  eye  is  the  furrow  side,  and  the  opposite  one  is 
called  the  land  side;  m  and  Z  are  the  stilts  or  handles;  oj^and 
q  r  are  the  handle  braces. 

ON  THE  VARIOUS  MEANS  OF  HOOKING  TEAMS  TO  THE  PLOW. 

This  is  done  by  swing  or  swingle  trees  and  bars,  as  they  are 
called  by  some,  or  whiffle  trees  and  eveners,  as  they  are  called  by 
others.  The  length  of  the  evener  is  generally  three  and  a  half 
feet;  the  length  of  the  whiffle  tree,  between  the  hooks  of  the 
traces,  is  three  feet,  but  these  lengths  are  often  considerably 
laised  in  order  to  meet  special  conditions. 

13 


194  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

The  strum  upon  a  whiffle  tree  when  used  in  plowing  is  analogous 
to  that  of  a  l)eam  supported  at  both  its  ends  and  sustaining  a  load 
in  the  middle.  The  rule  for  estimating  their  strength  is  there- 
fore the  same  in  each  case;  and  we  know  that  the  strength  of 
])eams  is  proportional  to  their  breadths  multiplied  into  the  square 
of  their  depths  and  divided  by  their  lengths.  It  is  to  be  under- 
stood that  the  depth  here  expressed  is  that  dimension  of  the 
whiffle  tree  which  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  strain.  It  is  used 
to  express  what  the  farmer  would  call  the  breadth  of  the  whiffle 
tree.  Suppose  a  whiffle  tree  three  feet  long  between  the  trace 
hooks;  its  depth  three  inches,  and  its  breadth  one  and  a  half 
inches,  accordino;  to  the  rule  oiven  above,  we  have  ^  -^  ^  ^  =  4  •  5, 
which,  multiplied  by  the  constant  number  660  for  oak,  and  740 
for  ash,  gives,  in  the  one  case,  2,970  pounds,  and  in  the  other 
3,330  pounds,  as  tlie  force  that  would  break  the  whiffle  tree. 
The  same  rule  is  a})plicable  to  the  evener.  The  strength,  thus 
found,  is  applica1)le  onl^^  to  the  centre  of  the  whiffle  trees  and 
evener,  for  it  is  ol)vious  that  the  strain  at  the  extremities  is  only 
half  that  at  the  centre.  The  ends  may,  therefore,  be  much  less 
in  depth  than  the  centre,  with  perfect  safety. 

Wooden  whiffle  trees  ought  always  to  be  fitted  with  clasp  and 
eye  mounting  of  the  l^est  wrought  iron,  from  two  to  two  and  a 
half  inches  broad,  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick  in  the 
middle  parts,  and  worked  off  to  a  thin  edge  at  the  sides.  The 
part  forming  the  eye  may  range  from  one-half  inch  diameter  in 
the  centre  eye  of  the  large  tree  to  three-eighths  inch  in  the  end 
clasps  of  the  small  trees;  and  they  are  applied  to  the  wood  in 
a  hot  state,  which,  by  cooling,  embraces  the  wood  very  firmly. 

On  the  evener,  the  middle  clasp  has  usually  a  ring  or  link 
welded  into  it,  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  hook  of  the  plow 
bridle.  The  two  end  clasps  have  their  eyes  on  the  opposite  edge 
of  the  whiffle  trees,  with  sufficient  opening  in  the  eyes  to  receive 
the  (8)  hooks  of  the  whiffle  trees  and  evener. 

The  mode  of  attaching  two  horses  to  a  plow  is  so  well  under- 
stood by  farmers  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  occupy  any  space  in 
describing  it. 

Fig.  103  gives  Mr.  Stephens'  mode  of  yoking  three  horses  to 
the  plow,  which  works  very  well  in  practice.  In  this  figure,  a  is 
bridle  of  the  plow;  b  the  evener,  five  feet  in  length  and  of 
strength  proportioned  to  the  draught  of  three  horses;  c  d  and  e 
are  the  three  whiffle  trees.     The  traces,  though  broken  off  in  the 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow. 


195 


figure  at  f  g,  are  to  be  understood  as  extending  forward  to  the 
shoulders  of  the  horses.  Between  the  evener  and  the  whiffle 
trees  the  compensating  apparatus  is  placed,  as  seen  in  the  figure, 
consisting  of  three  levers,  usually  constructed  of  iron.  Two  of 
these,  h  i  and  h  2',  are  levers  of  the  first  order,  but  with  unequal 
arms;  the  fulcrum,  ^,  being  fixed  at  one-third  of  the  entire  length 


Fiff.  JOS. 

from  the  outward  end  of  each.  The  arms  of  these  levers  are, 
therefore,  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one,  and  the  entire  length 
of  each  between  the  points  of  attachment  is  twenty-seven  inches. 
A  connecting  lever,  I,  of  equal  arms,  and  twenty  inches  in  length, 
is  jointed  to  the  longer  arms,  ii^  of  the  former,  by  means  of  the 
d()ul)le  short  links,  m  n.  The  two  levers,  li  i,  h  i,  are  hooked  by 
means  of  their  shackles  at  k  to  the  evener,  b.  From  the  mechan- 
ical arrangement  of  these  levers,  if  the  whole  resistance  at  a  be 
taken  at  600  pounds,  k  and  h  will  each  require  an  exertion  of  300 
pounds  to  overcome  the  resistance.  But  these  two  forces  fall  to 
be  subdivided  in  the  proportion  of  the  arms  of  the  levers  h  i; 
two-thirds  of  each,  or  200  pounds,  being  allotted  to  the  arms,  h, 
and  the  remaining  one-third,  100  pounds,  to  the  arms,  2,  which 
brings  the  system  to  an  equilibrium.  The  two  forces,  i  2,  being 
conjoined  by  means  of  the  connecting  levers  m  n,  their  union 
produces  a  force  of  200  pounds,  thus  equalizing  the  three  ultimate 
forces,  h  I  h,  to  200  pounds  each,  and  these  three  combined  are 
equal  to  the  whole  resistance,  a;  and  the  three  horses  that  are 
yoked  to  the  whiffle  trees,  c  d  e,  are  subjected  to  equal  exertion, 


196 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


whatever  may  be  the  amount  of  resistance  at  a,  which  has  to  be 
overcome. 

The  method  of  attaching  three  horses  to  the  plow,  most  usual 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  is  shown  in  Fig.  104.  In  this  case  the 
length  of  the  whiffle  trees  is  twenty-four  inches;  the  secondary 
evener  is  thirty  inches,  and  the  principal  evener  is  forty-Hve 
inches;  in  each  case  measuring  between  the  draft-hooks.  This 
brhigs  the  horses  very  near  together,  but  they  cannot  much 
exceed  this  length  if  one  of  the  horses  walks  in  the  furrow.     In 


case  the  two  horses  are  on  the  right  hand  and  the  one  horse  on 
the  left,  the  clasp-ring  or  hook  which  is  attached  to  the  plow 
must  be  placed  exactly  at  one-third  of  the  distance  between  the 
two  hooks  at  each  end  of  the  principal  evener,  that  is,  fifteen 
inches  from  the  right  hook;  if  the  two  horses  are  placed  at  the 
left  hand,  then  the  distance  must  be  reversed.  In  this  case,  as 
before,  each  horse  will  pull  exactly  one-third  of  the  load,  for,  as 
the  left-hand  lever  is  just  twice  as  long  as  the  right-hand  lever, 
this  last  will  take  just  twice  as  much  power  to  draw  it.  If  the 
total  draught  of  the  plow  is  600  pounds,  the  left  horse  will  pull 
one-third  of  it  (200  pounds)  and  the  two  right-hand  horses  will 
pull  400  pounds;  the  secondary  evener  being  a  lever  having  equal 
arms,  the  load  on  each  horse  will  be  just  half  that  amount — 200 
pounds.  If  the  nigh  horse  is  heavier  and  stronger  than  the  other 
two,  it  will  be  still  more  convenient,  as  the  long  side  of  the  evener 
may  then  be  somewhat  shortened  so  as  to  enable  the  horse  to 
walk  more  easily  in  the  furrow. 

When  it  is  desired  to  attach  four  horses  to  the  plow,  it  is 
usually  done  by  placing  them  two-and-two,  one  pair  before  the 
other,  the  evener  of  the  forward  pair  being  connected  with  the 
evener  of  the  hinder  pair  by  a  long-chain  called  a  soam-chain. 
The  horses  next  to  the  plow  are  connected  l)y  a  neck-yoke,  through 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow. 


197 


the  ring  of  which  the  neck-yoke  runs.  It  is  an  objection  to  this 
method,  that  both  teams  are  not  obliged  to  do  their  fair  equal 
share  of  the  work. 

The  plan  recommended  by  Mr.  Stephens  obviates  this  difficulty, 
and  compels  each  horse  to  take  his  proper  proportion  of  the  load. 


It  is  represented  in  Fig.  105,  where  a  is  the  bridle  of  the  plow, 
with  its  swivel  hook.  A  pully,  6,  of  cast  iron,  six  inches  in 
diameter,  mounted  in  an  iron  frame,  of  which  an  edge  view  is 
given  in  m,  is  attached  to  the  hook  of  the  bridle.  A  link-chain,  c, 
is  rove  through  the  frame  of  the  pulley,  and  to  one  end  of  it  the 
short  end  is  hooked;  the  evener,  cZ,  is  hooked  to  a  set  of  whiffle 
trees  for  the  plow  horses.  The  other  end  of  the  chain  passes 
forward  to  a  sufficient  distance  to  allow  the  leading  horses  room 
to  work,  and  to  it  is  hooked  the  second  evener  at  e,  for  the  leaders. 
In  the  figure,  a  part  of  the  chain,  from/ to  g,  is  broken  off;  but 
the  full   length  is  about  eleven  feet.     In  this  arrangement  the 


198  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

trace-chains  of  the  nigh-side  hind  horse  are  hooked  to  the  whiffle 
trees  at  h  h,  and  those  of  the  off-side  horse  at  i  i;  the  leaders 
being  at  h  h  and  I  I  respectively.  In  this  arrangement  the  balance 
of  the  forces  is  perfectly  preserved;  for  the  hind  horses  and  the 
leaders,  as  they  pull  at  opposing  ends  of  the  chain  passing  round 
a  pulley,  which  must  inevitably  be  always  in  equilibrium,  each 
j)air  of  horses  has  an  equal  share  of  the  draught;  and,  from  the 
principles  of  the  evener  and  whiffle  trees,  through  wdiich  each 
pair  acts,  the  individual  horses  must  have  an  equally  perfect 
division  of  the  labor,  unless  this  equilibrium  has  been  removed 
for  the  purpose  of  easing  a  weaker  horse.  In  order  to  prevent 
either  the  hind  horses  or  the  leaders  from  slipping  too  much 
ahead,  it  is  common  to  apply  a  light  check-chain,  o,  of  about 
fifteen  inches  long,  connecting  the  two  parts  of  the  main  chains, 
so  as  to  allow  only  a  short  oscillation  round  the  pulley,  which  is 
limited  by  the  check  chain.  When  this  is  adopted,  care  shonld 
be  taken  never  to  allow  the  check-chain  to  remain  upon  the 
stretch;  for  if  it  does  so,  the  advantage  of  equalization  is  los!, 
and  it  becomes  no  better  than  a  simple  soam-chain.  In  all  cases 
of  using  a  chain,  that  part  of  it  which  passes  forward  between 
the  hind  horses  must  be  borne  up  by  means  of  a  neck-yoke  or 
other  attachments  to  their  back-bands  or  collars. 

ADJUSTMENTS   FOR   PLOWING   UNDER   WEEDS   AND   STUBBLE. 

Those  who  have  plowed  land  infested  with  long  weeds,  bushes 
and  tall  corn  stubble,  well  know  how  difficult  it  is  to  make  good 
work  and  bring  the  surfjice  growth  beneath  the  plowed  ground. 
Fig.  106  shows  a  ready  and  eifective  means  of  accomplishing  this 
object.  This  plan  consists  of  a  log-chain,  or  large  tarred  rope, 
having  one  end  attached  to  the  outer  end  of  the  whiffle  tree  of 
the  off-side  horse,  and  the  other  end  hitched  round  the  beam  of 
the  plow,  near  the  standard,  as  represented  by  the  Fig.  106.  The 
chain  should  always  be  only  long  enough  to  draw  the  tops  of 
whatever  is  being  plowed  in  along  in  the  furrow,  just  in  time  to 
allow  the  furrow  slice,  when  turning,  to  fall  on  it.  If  the  chain 
is  a  few  inches  too  long,  the  furrow  slice  will  fall  upon  it,  and  l)o 
broken  and  displaced  as  the  chain  draws  out.  Take  a  "rolling 
hitch"  around  the  beam  of  the  plow,  and  then  adjust  the  length 
of  the  chain  until  the  bi":ht  of  it  will  remain  on  the  turnino; 
furrow  slice,  only  two  or  three  inches  forward  of  the  point  where 
it  comes  to  rest.     This  will  draw  the  tops  of  weeds,  grass,  Canada 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow. 


199 


Jfiff.  706. 


200  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

thistles,  and  corn-stalks,  completely  beneath  the  falling  earth; 
whereas,  without  such  a  contrivance,  the  tops  would  extend  above 
ground,  and  if  not  already  matured,  would  continue  to  grow, 
sometimes  quite  as  well  as  if  they  had  not  been  plowed  in.  Some- 
times weeds  and  corn-stalks  are  lirst  mowed  close  to  the  ground, 
and  hauled  into  the  furroAvs,  as  the  plowing  is  in  progress.  But, 
in  this  practice,  the  green  material  is  not  distributed  as  evenly  as 
it  is  when  plowed  in  without  being  mowed.  A  piece  of  half- 
inch  round  iron,  bent  in  the  form  of  a  letter  U  is  used  instead  of 
a  chain  for  drawing  under  red  clover  or  other  crops.  But,  as  a 
chain  is  more  flexible  than  an  iron  bow,  it  has  been  found  more 
convenient.  When  the  plow  is  drawn  by  oxen,  the  chain  is 
attached  to  a  stick  about  twenty  inches  long,  bolted  to  the  upper 
side  of  the  beam,  as  shown  by  the  preceding  engraving.  If 
hitched  to  the  forward  end  of  the  plow  beam,  the  chain  will  not 
always  run  far  enough  to  the  right  side  of  the  furrow  to  draw  in 
the  tops  of  all  the  stalks.  However,  if  the  chain  is  adjusted 
correctly  as  to  length,  the  work  can  be  performed  quite  satisfac- 
torily. 

Plowmen  experience  some  difficulty  in  keeping  the  bight  of 
the  chain  back  in  its  proper  place  on  the  turning  furrow  slice. 
For  this  reason  they  are  not  able  to  draw  everything  under  the 
slices,  as  is  desirable.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  J.  &  A.  Kilmer 
have  invented  the  arrangement  shown  in  Fio-.  107.  The  attach- 
ment  in  question  is  merely  a  chain.  A,  connected  to  the  plow 
beam  and  the  double  whiffle  tree,  and  provided  with  a  rod,  B, 
which  is  called  a  "regulator"  by  the  inventor.  This  regulator 
makes  a  bight  or  loop  in  the  chain,  so  that  the  matter  desired  to 
plow  under  is  caught  by  it  and  diverted  toward  the  furrow,  into 
which  it  is  thrown  and  covered.  ^ 

DEVICES   FOR   CLEARING    THE    COULTER. 

In  using  the  ordinary  plow,  especially  on  stubble  fields,  or  in 
Iieavy  grass  land,  the  angle  between  the  coulter  and  beam  fre- 
(|uently  becomes  choked  to  such  an  extent  as  to  raise  the  share 
from  its  proper  depth,  and  necessitate  stopping  the  team  and 
removing  the  obstacle  by  hand.  In  the  accompanying  engraving 
there  is  represented  a  very  simple  contrivance  designed  to  remedy 
this  difficulty.     (See  Fig.  108.) 

In  the  guide  wheel  is  placed  a  stud  or  pin  which  forms  a  crank, 
and  to  this  pin  is  pivoted  the  end  of  a  rod  of  iron,  wiiich  is  carried 


Mechanical  Conditions  of  the  Plow. 


201 


along  under  the  beam  and  around  the  lug  of  the  share  to  the 
coulter,  as  seen  in  the  engraving.  As  the  guide  wheel  rotates  a 
reciprocating  Avith  a  vertical  motion  is  given  to  this  vibrating  rod, 
so  that  as  the  rod  advances  to  the  front  of  the  coulter  edge  it 
pushes  the  stubl)le  from  the  blade  and  throws  it  down  into  the 
furrow. 

LEFT   HAND    PLOWS. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  left  hand  plows  are  very  much  in 
voo-ue.  The  team  is  generally  driven  with  a  single  line.  In 
Fig.  109  we  give  an  illustration  of  the  mode  of  driving. 


J^iff.  709. 

In  this  case  the  nigh  horse  walks  in  the  furrow,  and  the  single 
line  is  attached  to  his  bridle.  The  off  horse  is  guided  by  a 
"jockey  stick,"  «,  from  the  hames  ring  of  the  nigh  horse,  and  by 
strap  c  between  their  heads. 

PLOWING   GROUNDS    WITHOUT   DEAD   FURROWS. 

It  is  sometimes  very  desirable  to  do  this;  we  therefore  give 
the  annexed  method  of  accomplishing  it,  taken  from  the  "Ameri- 
can Agriculturalist." 

PLOWING    GROUND    WITHOUT    DEAD    FURROWS. 

Dead  furrows  are  a  nuisance,  especially  where  hoed  crops  are 
cultivated;  and  when  land  is  stocked  down  for  meadows,  deep 
dead  furrows  make  an  uneven  surface  for  the  mowers  and  horse- 
rakes  to  work  over.  When  a  field  is 
plowed  in  lands  beginning  on  the  out- 
side, turning  all  the  furrows  outward, 
and  finishing  the  plowing  in  the  middle 
of  the  field,  there  will  be  a  dead  fur- 
row from  every  corner  to  the  middle 
dead  furrow  of  each  land,  and  a  strip 
of  ground  eio:ht  or  ten  feet    wide   on  J^i^ff-  ^ - 

one  side  of  every  dead  furrow  Avill  be  trodden  down  firmly  by  the 
teams  when  turniii«r  around.     Plowiuir  a  field  without  dead  fur- 


202 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


J^lg 


rows  is  simply  commencing  at  the  middle 
and  turning  the  furroAV  slices  all  inward. 
If  the  plowing  be  done  with  a  right  hand 
plow  the  teams  will  "gee  around,"  always 
turning  on  the  unplowed  ground.  When 
a  field  is  plowed  in  this  manner  there  are 
no  ridges  or  dead  furrows,  and  the  surface 
is  even,  so  that  the  operation  of  any 
machine  is  never  hindered.  When  sod 
ground  is  plowed  in  lands  there  is  always  a  strijD  of  ground 
beneath  the  first  two  furrow  slices  at  every 
ridge  that  is  not  broken  up.  This  is  to  a  great 
extent  avoided  when  the  whole  field  is  plowed 
as  one  land,  and  may  be  entirely  avoided  if 
back-furrowed.  The  accompanying  diagrams 
"will  show  how  to  plow  a  square  field,  or  one 
of  irregular  boundary,  commencing  in  the  mid- 
dle and  finishing  at  the  outsides.  Fig.  1  I^lg.  S. 
shows  a  rectangular  field.  The  plowman  finds  a  point  equally 
distant  from  three  sides,  measuring  of  course  at  right  angles  to 
the  sides,  and  sets  a  stake.  Then  he  finds  the  point  equally  dis- 
tant from  the  three  sides  at  the  other 
end,  and  sets  another  stake.  From 
these  two  stakes  to  the  corners  of  the 
field  he  turns  two  furrow  slices  together, 
and  then  plows  the  field,  being  guided 
by  them,  and  occasionally  measuring  to 
the  outside  to  see  if  he  is  keeping  his 
"^'  furrows  of  equal  width  at  setting  in  and 
running  out,  and  on  each  side.  In  Fig.  2,  a  four  sided  lot, 
where  the  angles  are  not  right  angles,  precisely  the  same  rule  is 
followed.  In  the  case  of  the  triangular  field,  the  plowman  begins 
l)y  plowing  about  a  single  point,  which,  though  awkward  at 
first,  may  be  executed  with  ease  after  a  few  trials.  In  the  CMse 
of  the  irregular  five  sided  lot,  represented  by  Fig.  4,  it  is  a  little 
more  difficult  to  start  exactly  right,  but  the  ruling  gives  a  clear 
idea  of  how  the  furrows  run,  and  it  is  always  well  to  pace  off 
frequently  to  the  outside  of  the  lot — or  rather  from  the  fence 
startino;  at  rigrht  angles  to  it — to  be  sure  that  the  portion  remain- 
ing  unplowed  on  each  side,  and  at  each  end  of  each  side,  remains 
always  of  a  corresponding  width  as  the  plowing  progresses. 


Report  of  the  Judges.  203 


CHAPTER  X. 

REPORT  OF  THE  JUDGES 

APPOINTED     BY   THE    STATE    AGRICULTITRAL     SOCIETY   OP    NEW   VORIC   TO    EXAMINE 
PLOWS,    CULTIYATORS    AND    HARROWS. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  TRIAL. 

The  Society  has  for  several  years  had  it  in  contemplation  to 
make  a  thorough  trial  of  the  various  agricultural  implements 
used  for  preparing  the  land  for  the  growth  of  crops;  for  putting 
in  the  seed;  for  the  distribution  of  manures,  and  for  severing  the 
crops  from  the  soil,  as  well  as  preparing  them  for  market. 

Much  delay  occurred  in  prosecuting  this  design  from  its 
inability  to  procure  instruments  of  sufficient  accuracy  for  determ- 
ining the  actual  results  obtained  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  These- 
difficulties  were  finally  overcome,  and  instruments  were  invented 
and  manufactured  for  the  purpose,  mainly  by  Mr.  Henry  Water- 
man, of  Hudson,  the  Consulting  Engineer  of  the  Society. 

It  was  at  first  proposed  to  make  a  trial  of  all  the  implements 
in  a  single  year,  but  it  was  soon  found  that  this  would  involve  so 
large  an  amount  of  labor,  and  occupy  so  much  time,  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  procure  a  board  of  judges  who  could  spare  the 
time  from  their  own  private  pursuits  to  do  justice  to  the  work 
assigned  to  them. 

It  was,  therefore,  resolved  to  hold  a  trial  of  the  implements 
for  severiug  the  crops  from  the  ground  and  for  preparing  them 
for  market  in  the  year  1866,  at  Auburn,  and  the  trial  of  plows, 
harrows  and  cultivators  was  fixed  for  the  mouth  of  May,  1867. 

Extensive  correspondence  was  had  with  the  leading  manufac- 
turers of  these  implements,  after  which  the  executive  committee 
prepared  a  programme,  which  is  given  below,  and  appointed  the 
following  gentlemen  to  act  as  judges  at  the  trial,  viz: 

John  Stanton  Gould,  of  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  Chairman;  Prof 
Benjamin  Pierce,  Cambridge,  JNIass.;  Hon.  Elisha  R.  Potter, 
Kingston,  R.  L;  Sanford  Howard,  Lansing,  Michigan;  Henry 
Waterman,  Hudson,  N.  Y.;  Peter  Crispell,  Jr.,  Kingston,  N.  Y.; 
George  Geddes,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.;  Abraham  B.  Conger,  Wald- 
berg,  Rockland  county,  N.  Y.;  Joseph  McGraw,  Jr.,  Dryden, 
N.  Y.;  B.  P.  Johnson,  Albany,  X.  Y. 


204  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

NEW  YORK  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  SOCIETY. 
Second  National  Trial  of  Plows  and  Other  Implements.  1867 

PROGRAMME  FOR  PLOWS. 

The  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society  respectfully  invite  the  makers  of 
plows  in  any  State  of  the  Union,  in  Canada,  and  in  Europe,  to  compete  in  the 
following  enumeration  of  classes  for  the  prizes  annexed  to  each  class: 

A  gold  medal  is  offered  by  the  New  York  State  Agricultural  Society  for  the  best 
plow  in  each  of  the  following  classes: 

Class  I. — A  sod  plow  for  stiff  soils. 

Class  II. — A  plow  for  stubble  land  in  stiff  soils. 

Class  IIL — A  sod  plow  for  sandy  soils  and  light  loams. 

Class  IV. — A  plow  for  stubble  land,  which  will  cut  a  furrow  twelve  inches 
deep,  with  three  horses,  which  will  raise  the  lowest  soil  to  the  surface  of  the 
furrow.  For  a  plow  which  will  turn  a  furrow  of  this  kind  not  less  than  five 
inches  wide,  the  Society  offers  as  a  prize  its  large  gold  medal. 

Class  V. — A  Michigan  sod  and  trench  plow. 

Class  YI. — A  subsoil  plow  in  connection  with  an  ordinary  plow. 

Class  YII. — A  ditching  plow  for  opening  drains. 

Class  YIII. — A  machine  for  excavating  ditches  for  under-draining. 

Class  IX. — A  steel  plow  for  alluvial  and  unctuous  lands. 

Class  X. — A  swing  or  side-hill  plow. 

Entries. 

§  1 .  Competitors  must  enter  their  plows  at  the  Secretary's  oflBce,  Albany,  at 
least  two  weeks  before  the  time  fixed  for  the  commencement  of  the  trial.  This 
rule  will  be  rigidly  enforced,  as  it  will  otherwise  be  impossible  to  provide  lots  for 
the  trial. 

§  2.  At  the  time  of  making  the  entry  each  competitor  will  be  required  to  file  a 
statement  showing,  first,  the  price  of  the  plow ;  second,  its  weight ;  third,  the 
rule  or  the  formation  of  the  mould-board ;  fourth,  a  statement  of  the  valuable 
points  claimed  by  the  exhibitor. 

§3. 

§  4.  Each  plow  will  be  numbered  in  the  order  of  its  entry.  A  card  showing 
legibly  this  number  and  the  number  of  its  class  must  be  aflBxed  to  each  plow.  If  it 
is  lost  or  the  numbers  be  obliterated,  new  cards  will  be  furnished  by  the  Secretary. 
No  judge  will  make  any  record  respecting  any  plow  unless  this  card  is  upon  it. 
Without  a  strict  adherence  to  this  rule  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  judges  to  keep 
their  notes  correctly. 

§  5.  Every  plow  entered  will  be  charged  with  a  fee  of  twenty  dollars. 

§  6.  As  soon  as  the  time  for  making  the  entries  has  expired,  the  Secretnry  will 
cause  them  to  be  printed.  A  complete  list  of  the  entries,  with  the  numbers  and 
the  statements  required  to  be  made,  will  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  of  the 
judges. 

Duties  of  Officers. 

The  OflBcers  of  the  Society  will, 

§  1.  Stake  off  a  suflBcient  number  of  plots,  each  containing  a  quarter  of  an  acre. 
A  space  two  feet  wide  will  be  left  between  each  plot. 

§  2.  The  stakes  will  be  2^  feet  long  by  21  inches  wide.  The  plots  will  be  num- 
bered from  No.  1  upward.     There  will  be  four  stakes  to  each  lot,  each  of  the  four 


Report  of  the  Judges.  205 

will  bear  the  same  number.  The  number  of  all  the  stakes  will  face  inward  toward 
the  lot  which  they  designate.  The  stakes  will  be  rounded  at  one  end  and  sharp- 
ened at  the  other. 

§  3.  Eight  poles  will  be  provided,  each  eight  feet  long,  they  will  be  painted 
white  downward  two  feet  below  the  top,  a  black  ring  six  inches  Avide  will  be  painted 
in  the  middle  of  the  whole  field.     Two  swivel  hooks. 

Two  hooks  with  their  ends  bent  on  opposite  sides  of  the  shank. 

Four  gauges  to  show  the  breadth  of  the  furrow.  One  for  ascertaining  its  depth. 
One  dynamometer.  One  platform  scale  of  sufficient  size  for  weighing  plows.  One 
tape  line  200  feet  long.  One  tape  line  eight  feet  long  for  each  member  of  the  des- 
criptive committee.  A  two-foot  carpenter's  square.  A  bevel  rule.  A  spirit  level, 
and  a  blank  book  and  pencil  for  each  judge. 

§  4.  They  will  procure  a  sufficient  number  of  active  and  faithful  policemen  to 
keep  all  intruders  from  the  plow  ground,  and  to  preserve  order  at  the  trial.  A 
tent  sufficiently  large  to  shelter  all  the  judges.  A  team  for  the  special  dynamome- 
ter trials,  and  a  lumber  wagon. 

Duties  of  Competitors. 

§  1.  Each  competitor  will  furnish  his  own  team  and  plowman.  In  the  special 
dynamometer  trials  the  team  to  be  furnished  by  the  Society. 

§  2.  They  will  provide  themselves  with  wrenches  and  other  tools  for  taking  the 
plows  apart  when  necessary. 

§  3.  The  plots  will  be  plowed  in  the  order  of  their  numbers.  All  competitors 
not  ready  for  work  when  called  on  may  be  ruled  out  by  the  judges. 

Duties  of  Judges. 

§  1.  The  chairman  of  the  Board  of  Judges  will,  on  the  first  day  of  the  trial, 
distribute  the  plots  of  ground  by  lot  among  the  competitors. 

§  2.  The  judges  will  commence  operations  each  morning  at  eight  o'clock, 
lunch  at  half  past  twelve  o'clock,  and  finish  at  half  past  five  o'clock.  They  are 
particularly  requested  to  look  over  their  minutes  every  evening,  and  if  their  notes 
are  imperfect  to  remedy  the  deficiency  as  early  as  possible. 

§  3.  Before  entering  upon  his  duties,  each  judge  shall  subscribe  a  written 
declaration  that  he  is  not  directly  or  indirectly  interested  in  the  sale  of  any  plow. 

§  4.  The  following  will  be  examined  as  the  most  important  points  of  the  plow  : 

1.  Pulverizing  power. 

2.  Non-liability  to  choke  in  stubble. 

3.  Lightness  of  draught,  considered  in  connection  with  pulverizing  power. 

4.  Ease  of  holding. 

5.  Durability. 

6.  Cheapness. 

7.  Excellence  of  mechanical  work. 

8.  Excellence  of  material. 

9.  Thorough  inversion  and  burial  of  weeds. 

10.  Even  distribution  of  wear. 

11.  Regularity  or  trueness  of  turning  and  carrying  the  furrow  slice  on  sod. 
§  5.  Lightness  of  draught  alone,  except  in  sandy  lands,  will  not  be  esteemed  a 

great  merit.  The  plow  which  pulverizes  the  soil  most,  with  the  least  draft,  will 
have  the  preference. 

§  6.  The  Society  desire  to  encourage  an  increased  depth  of  plowing  in  the  State. 
Those  plows,  therefore,  that  arc  able  to  turn  a  furrow  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 


206  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

so  that  the  depth  shall  bear  the  greatest  proportion  to  the  width,  will  have  the 
preference.  The  furrow  will  be  laid  as  nearly  as  possible  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees. 

§  7.  The  judges  will  be  subdivided  into  committees,  as  follows. 

(a)  A  Dynamometer  Committee. 

(i)  A  Description  Committee. 

(c)  A  Weight  and  Price  Committee. 

(d)  A  Time  Committee. 

(e)  A  Committee  on  Quality,  Material  and  Mechanical  Structure. 

Each  judge  will  form  an  opinion  upon  each  point  of  the  work  of  the  plows  and 
record  it  in  his  note  book. 

§  8.  The  point  of  each  plow  will  be  detached  before  it  begins  to  work  and  accu- 
rately weighed  by  the  Weight  and  Price  Committee.  It  will  be  weighed  again  as 
soon  as  its  work  is  finished.  It  will  be  deemed  a  point  of  great  merit  in  the  plow 
that  shows  the  least  abrasion. 

§  9.  Not  more  than  four  plows  shall  be  at  work  at  any  one  time,  and  one  judge 
shall  be  assigned  by  the  chairman  to  each  plow.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  judge 
so  assigned  to  observe  the  action  and  work  of  the  plow  during  the  whole  time  that 
it  is  in  operation.  He  will  note  the  exact  time  occupied  in  plowing.  If  there  are 
any  stoppages  he  will  note  the  exact  time  of  the  stoppage,  and  state  exactly  the 
cause  of  it.  He  will  measure  and  record  the  length  and  breadth  o  each  urrow 
slice  three  times  on  each  furrow,  the  average  of  these  to  be  taken  as  its  true  size. 

§  10.  The  dynamometer  will  be  applied  on  two  furrows,  viz.,  going  and  return- 
ing on  each  lot.  The  length  and  depth  of  the  furrow  slice  shall  be  measured  six 
times  on  each  furrow,  when  the  dynamometer  is  applied.  The  judge  in  charge 
will  also  observe  whether  the  sole  of  the  plow  is  kept  in  a  horizontal  position ;  if 
it  departs  fi-om  this  at  any  time  it  is  to  be  noted;  the  instrument  No.  2  will  enable 
him  to  measure  the  amount  of  departure. 

§  11.  In  addition  to  the  dynamometer  trials  on  the  respective  lots,  additional 
trials  shall  be  made  under  the  dh'ection  of  the  judges  in  some  level  field.  Each 
plow  shall  plow  one  furrow  without,  and  the  next  with  the  dynamometer  attached, 
and  so  on  until  all  have  been  tried.  If  desired,  the  judges  may  then  try  the 
draught  by  a  windlass  and  hand  power. 

§  12.  After  all  of  the  plowing  is  finished,  the  judges  will  carefully  and  critically 
examine  each  lot.  They  will  designate  the  different  qualities  of  plowing  by  the 
numbers  one  up  to  ten.  Ten  indicates  the  best  plowing,  one  the  worst,  and  the 
other  numbers  the  intervening  degrees  of  merit.  As  the  examination  proceeds 
each  judge  will  place  in  the  book  opposite  to  the  number  of  the  lot  the  number 
which,  in  his  judgment,  indicates  the  excellence  of  the  plowing.  The  judges  will 
then  assemble  privately,  when  the  chairman  will  inquire  of  each  judge  successively 
what  number  indicating  excellence  he  has  affixed  to  No.  1.  The  chairman  will 
lecord  such  numbers  opposite  to  No.  1.  He  will  then  ask  for  the  marks  of  each 
judge  for  lot  No.  2,  and  so  on  until  the  merit  marks  of  all  the  judges  are  ascer- 
tained and  recorded.  The  plow  used  on  the  lot  to  which  a  majority  of  the  judges 
assign  the  highest  marks  of  merit  shall  have  the  preference  for  "  excellence  of 
work." 

§  13.  The  records  of  the  dynamometer  trials  shall  then  be  examined  by  the 
judges,  and  if  they  find  that  there  is  any  very  striking  discrepancy  between  the 
different  kinds  of  trial  above  mentioned  they  may  cause  the  plows  in  which  such 
discrepancy  exists  to  be  tried  over  until  they  arc  fully  satisfied  with  respect  to 


Report  of  the  Judges.  207 

the  draft  of  each.     They  will  then  determine  the  best  plow  for  lightness  of  draught, 
which  determination  shall  be  recorded  by  the  chairman. 

§  14.  The  plows  shall  then  be  examined  with  regard  to  wear,  those  being  deemed 
best  M'here  the  wear  is  most  evenly  distributed.  The  plows  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  deemed  the  best  in  point  of  durability. 

§  15.  The  plows  shall  then  be  minutely  examined  with  reference  to  the  material 
of  which  they  are  composed  (the  quality  of  the  wood  and  iron),  and  the  best  in 
this  respect  shall  be  recorded  as  "made  of  the  best  material." 

The  plow  having  the  greatest  number  of  suffrages  shall  be  deemed  the  best  for 
mechanical  construction. " 

§  16.  Exhibitors  will  be  required  to  present  an  ingot,  cast  in  an  iron  mould,  of 
the  iron  used  in  making  the  plow,  at  least  one  and  a  half  inches  thick.  There 
must  be  an  aflBdavit  stating  the  furnace  from  which  they  obtain  their  pig-iron,  and 
if  more  than  one  kind  is  used,  the  proportions  of  each  kind  used,  and  that  the 
ingot  is  a  fair  sample  of  iron  used  in  the  plows. 

§  17.  The  judges  will  closely  observe  the  furrow  slice  in  the  act  of  being  turned 
and  see  if  that  action  tends  to  open  or  compress  it ;  they  will  also  observe  the 
force  required  to  press  the  end  of  a  stick  into  the  furrow.  If  practicable  the 
jud-^es  will  not  determine  on  the  question  of  pulverization  until  they  have  had  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  the  time  that  elapses  before  each  lot  dries  after  a  fall  of 
rain,  and  the  growth  of  crops  on  each. 

§  18.  The  plow  which  is  finally  determined  to  have  the  greatest  number  of  good 
points  shall  be  awarded  the  first  prize  as  the  best  plow. 

§  19.  The  judges  shall  in  no  case  consult  with  each  other  or  express  opinions 
in  presence  of  competitors. 

§  20.  No  person  except  judges  and  officers  shall  be  permitted  by  the  police  to 
enter  upon  the  plowed  grounds. 

§21.  The  judges  will  cause  comparative  experiments  to  be  made  to  ascertain 
the  influence  of  the  coulter  on  draught ;  they  will  investigate  experimentally  the 
best  angle  for  its  insertion,  and  also  the  most  advantageous  depth  for  it. 

§  22.  They  will  inquire  into  the  effect  of  the  wheel  on  draught. 

§  23.  They  will  ascertain  the  influence  of  speed  upon  the  draught  of  the  plow. 

§  24.  They  will  ascertain  the  effect  of  long  and  short  beams. 

§  25.  They  will  investigate  the  influence  of  weight  on  plows. 

§  26.  They  will  ascertain  the  rate  which  the  several  parts  of  the  plow  consume 
power,  as  compared  with  the  total  draft,  i.  e.  what  proportion  of  the  power  is 
consumed  in  turning  the  furrow  over.''     What  proportion  for  overcoming  the  cohe- 
sion of  the  earth  on  the  land  side .''     On  the  bottom  ?     How  much  of  friction  1 
Miscellaneous  Regulations. 

§  1 .  The  plows  for  competition  must  be  exactly  as  they  are  sold  to  the  farmers, 
except  that  each  competitor  will  be  allowed  to  scour  the  working  parts. 

§  2.  Provision  will  be  made  by  the  Society  for  conveying  the  judges  to  and  from 
the  trial  grounds.     Lunch  will  also  be  provided  for  them. 

§  3.  Notice  will  be  given  of  the  time  and  place  of  holding  the  trial  as  soon  as  it 
is  determined  on. 

PROGRAMME  FOR  HARROWS. 

§  1.  There  will  be  but  one  class  of  these  machines.  A  premium  of  a  medal 
is  offered  for  the  best  harrow. 

§  2.  The  general  rules  for  the  trial  of  plows  will  be  followed  in  the  trial  of 
harrows,  as  far  as  they  are  applicable. 


208  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

§  3.  Harrows  will  be  tried  next  in  order  after  the  trial  of  plows. 
§  4.  The  points  to  be  determined  respecting  them  are  as  follows : 

1.  Which  combines  strength  with  lightness  in  the  highest  degree? 

2.  Which  combines  the  best  materials  with  the  best  workmanship  ? 

3.  Which  combines  the  greatest  pulverizing  power  with  the  least  draft  ? 

4.  Which  is  managed  in  the  field  with  the  greatest  facility  ? 

5.  Which  is  least  liable  to  clog  in  working  ? 

6.  Which  works  the  most  rapidly  ? 

Persons  desiring  to  enter  articles  for  exhibition  only  will  be  permitted  to  do  so 
on  payment  of  five  dollars. 

PROGRAMME  FOR  CULTIVATORS. 

The  Society  offer  the  following  premiums  for  cultivators  : 

Class  I. 
For  corn  and  root  crops,  best  one-horse  cultivator  to  cultivate  one  row,  a  gold 
medal. 

For  best  two-horse  cultivator  for  cultivating  two  rows,  a  gold  medal. 

Class  II. 

For  mellowing  soil  and  killing  weeds,  best  cultivator  on  wheels,  with  device  for 
raising  and  lowering  the  frame  that  holds  the  teeth,  so  as  to  regulate  the  depth  of 
cultivation  and  to  make  the  machine  portable,  a  gold  medal. 

Best  cultivator  having  handles  to  guide  it,  and  with  or  without  small  wheels  to 
regulate  the  depth  of  the  cultivator,  a  gold  medal. 

The  judges  will  carefully  observe  and  express  their  opinion  on  each  of  the 
following  points : 

1.  Thoroughness  and  depth  of  pulverization.     It  is  desirable  the  instrument 

should  work  deep  or  shallow,  as  may  be  desired  by  the  operator. 

2.  Adaptation  to  a  variety  of  soil,  such  as  sandy,  stony,  cla3'^ey,  etc. 

3.  Facility  of  control  by  the  driver  ;  this  includes  steerage,  turning  corners, 

raising  or  lowering  one  or  the  other  of  the  parts  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
driver. 

4.  Comfort  and  convenience  of  the  driver ;  this  also  includes  his  ability  to 

see  the  rows  distinctly. 

5.  Portability  and  convenience  for  storage. 

6.  Ability  to  resist  clogging,  not  only  by  grass,  roots,  and  other  ligneous 

matters,  but  in  damp  soils. 

7.  Adaptation  to  side  hills  and  uneven  surfaces. 

8.  Adaptation  to  the  greatest  variety  of  purposes. 

9.  Durability. 
10.  Cheapness. 

The  instrument  having  the  greatest  number  of  merits  and  the  fewest  defects  will 
be  entitled  to  the  prize.  If,  however,  an  instrument  has  many  advantages,  if  it 
has  one  defect  of  great  magnitude,  it  must  be  rejected. 

The  same  implement  may  compete  in  both  classes  if  desired,  but  it  will  pay  a 
separate  entry  fee  for  each  class. 

The  trial  of  cultivators  will  follow  immediately  after  the  trial  of  harrows. 

Place  of  Trial — Near  Utica,  N.  Y. 

Time  of  Beginning — Tuesday,  May  7th,  1867. 

The  judges  will  meet  at  Baggs'  Hotel  on  Saturday,  May  4th. 


Report  of  the  Judges.  209 

The  President,  Secretary,  Consulting  Engineer,  and  Chairman  of  the  Board  of 

Judges,  will  assemble  at  Baggs'  Hotel  on  Tuesday^  April  30th,  iand  will  make  all 

needful  arrangements  for  the  preparation  of  the  ground  and  the  reception  of 

implements. 

B.  P.  JOHNSON,  Secretary. 
State  Agricultural  Rooms,  Albany,  N.Y. 

The  judges  and  competitors  were  all  assembled  at  Utica  on 
the  7th  of  May,  as  appointed  in  the  programme.  The  grounds 
were  all  staked  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  John  Butterfield,  who  had 
generously  offered  it,  with  all  needful  facilities,  to  the  Society; 
and  every  preparation  was  completed,  but  it  had  rained  nearly 
every  day  for  a  week  previous,  the  ground  was  thoroughly  satu- 
rated with  moisture,  and  it  continued  to  rain  for  ten  consecutive 
days  after  the  7th,  the  day  appointed  for  the  commencement  of 
the  trial.  The  land  was,  in  consequence,  like  a  mortar-bed,  and 
was  utterly  unfit  for  a  trial  which  would  be  satisfactory  either  to 
the  Society  or  the  competitors. 

It  was  therefore  resolved,  after  conference  with  all  parties,  and 
with  their  entire  assent,  to  adjourn  the  trial  until  the  10th  day  of 
September,  to, be  held  at  the  same  place. 

At  that  time,  the  parties  having  reassembled,  the  trial  was  had 
in  conformity  w^ith  the  programme.     The  following  is  the  list  of 

entries: 

PLOWS. 

Class  I. 
No.  16 F.  F.  Holbrook Boston. 

Class  II. 

No.  17 F.  F.  Holbrook Boston. 

No.  12 Collins  &  Co New  York. 

Class  III. 

No.  1   A.  L.  Brearley  &  Co Trenton,  N.  J. 

No.  18 F.  F.  Holbrook Boston. 

Class  IV. 

No.  19 F.  F.  Holbrook Boston. 

No.  13 Collins  &  Co New  York. 

Class  V. 
No.  20 F.  F.  Holbrook Boston. 

Class  VI. 
No.  6  R.  J.  Wheatley Du  Quoin. 

Class  VII. 

No.  5 A.  P.  Routt Somerset,  Va. 

Class  VIII. 
No.  23 E.  Heath Fowlerville,  N.  Y. 

Class  IX. 

No.  14 Collins  &  Co New  York. 

14 


210  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Class  X. 

No.  21 F.  F.  Ilolbrook Boston. 

No.  27 L.  D.  Burch Sherburne,  N.  Y. 

Oil  an  examination  of  the  preceding  list  of  entries,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  plows  entered  by  F.  F,  Holbrook  are  more 
numerous  than  those  of  any  other  contributor,  and  that  in  ftict 
the}^  are  represented  in  nearly  every  class.  These  plows  are  all 
constructed  on  a  plan  invented  by  Governor  F.  Holbrook,  of  Ver- 
mont, and  now  a  professor  of  Agriculture  in  Cornell  University, 

We  were  instructed  in  the  most  minute  details  of  this  plow  by 
Gov.  Holbrook,  and  the  trials  at  Utica  and  subsequently  at  Brat- 
tleboro  showed  very  clearly  the  influence  of  the  warped  surface 
which  is  generated  by  his  method  upon  the  texture  of  the  soil. 

Governor  Holbrook  is  as  yet  unprotected  by  a  patent  on  his 
method,  and  we  are  therefore  most  reluctantly  compelled  to 
withhold  a  description  of  it,  but  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying 
that  it  is  the  best  system  for  generating  the  true  curves  of  the 
mould-board  that  has  been  brouoht  to  our  knowledo-e.  This 
method  is  applicable  to  the  most  diversified  forms  of  the  plow, 
to  long  or  short,  to  broad  or  narrow,  to  high  or  low,  no  matter 
what  the  form  may  be,  this  method  will  impress  a  family  likeness 
upon  them  all;  there  will  be  straight  lines  in  each  running  from 
the  front  to  the  rear,  and  from  the  sole  to  the  upper  parts  of  the 
share  and  mould-board.  None  of  these  lines  wnll  be  parallel  to 
each  other,  nor  will  either  of  them  be  radii  from  a  common 
centre.  The  angle  formed  by  any  two  of  them  will  be  unlike 
the  angle  formed  by  any  other  two;  a  change  in  the  angle  formed 
by  any  of  the  transverse  lines  will  produce  a  corresponding  change 
in  the  vertical  lines,  and  there  will  always,  in  every  form  of  the 
plow,  be  a  reciprocal  relation  between  the  transverse  and  vertical 
lines.  Plows  made  upon  this  plan  may  appear  to  the  eye  to  be 
as  widely  different  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them,  and  yet,  on  the 
application  of  the  straight-edge  and  protractor  it  will  ])e  found 
that  they  agree  precisely  in  their  fundamental  character.  The 
surface  of  the  mould-board  is  always  such  that  the  difterent  parts 
of  the  furrow  slice  will  move  over  it  with  unequal  velocities. 

Class  I. — Sod  Plows  for  Stiff  Soils. 

The  only  entry  in  this  class  was  by  F.  F.  Holbrook  of  his  Lap 
Furrow  Sod  plow  for  stiff  soils  (No.  65).  Weight,  130  pounds. 
Price,  $20. 

The  soil  was  of  a  stiff,  clayey  consistency,  and  running  at  six 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


211 


inches  below  the  surface  into  a  mixture  of  l)lue  c hi}"  and  gravel; 
it  was  in  a  very  dry  state,  and  had  never  been  previously  plowed 
to  a  greater  depth  than  five  inches.  The  sole  of  the  plow  during 
the  entire  trial  run  in  soil  which  had  never  before  been  stirred 
with  the  plow.  The  furrow  slice  was  ten  inches  by  seven  inches. 
The  actual  draught  was  472  pounds;  the  draught  as  estimated 
for  each  cubic  foot  turned  over,  972  pounds.  It  worked  exceed- 
ingly well,  pulverizing  the  ground  thoroughly,  holds  very  easily 
and  keeps  well  in  the  ground,  and  has  a  remarkable  j^owxr  of 
self-adaptation  to  the  furrow  slice.*  We  ascertained  by  trial  that 
this  plow  may  be  made  to  do  very  good  work  in  a  furrow  eight 
inches  deep  and  twelve  inches  wide,  or  b}'  changing  the  cutters 
it  will  make  good  fiat  furrovv  plowing. 

Inasmuch  as  there  was  no  competition  in  this  class,  we  should 
have  deemed  it  our  duty  to  have  withheld  the  gold  medal  if  we 
had  the  slightest  doubt  that  it  was  fully  merited,  but  we  have  no 
doubt  whatever  upon  that  subject.  The  material  which  enters 
into  its  composition  is  of  the  very  best  quality,  the  workmanship 
is  excellent,  it  is  strong  and  durable,  the  draught  is  light,  and  it 
has  every  quality  of  a  good  plow  in  a  very  eminent  degree.  We 
therefore  unanimously  award  a  gold  medal  for  this  plow  in  this 
class.  The  annexed  cut  is  a  very  good  representation  of  it. 
(Fig.  110.) 


riff.  /fo. 

Class  II. — For  Stubble  Lands  in  Stiff  Soils. 
The  entries  in  this  class  were: 

F.  F.  Holbrook's  No.  GG.     Weight,   118  pounds.     Pi'ce,  $1?. 
Size  of  furrow  slice,  ten  inches  Avide,  seven  inches  deep. 


*  In  view  of   the  extreroo   tenacity  of  the   ground   this   shows   an   exceedingly   light 
draught. 


212  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Collins  &  Co.'s  B  14.  Weight,  98  pounds.  Price,  $25.  Size 
of  furrow  slice,  thirteen  inches  wide,  seven  inches  deep. 

The  lot  of  land  on  which  the  trial  was  had  sloped  downwards 
towards  the  north.  It  may  be  described  as  a  stiff  clay  loam 
which  is  underlaid  from  four  to  five  inches  below  the  surface  with 
a  gravelly  stratum,  consisting  of  stones  varying  in  size  from  a 
hen's  egg  to  a  cherry,  impacted  in  a  stiff  clay.  It  had  never  been 
plowed  deeper  than  five  inches.  The  plows,  therefore,  had  to 
work  in  two  inches  of  soil  which  had  never  been  stirred  before. 
The  land  had  been  saturated  with  water  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  and  in  the  latter  j^art  it  had  been  baked  by  the  fierce 
summer  sun  until  it  was  almost  as  hard  as  a  brickbat.  A  luxuri- 
ant coat  of  vegetation  had  sprung  up  under  these  influences,  con- 
sisting of  smart-weed  {^Polygonum  acre),  mild  water  pepper  (P. 
hydropiperoides),  mullein  {X'erbascum  Thapsus),  Indian  tobacco 
{Lobelia  infiala)]  several  Asters,  chiefly  A  corymb osus  and  A  cor- 
difolius,  heal-all  {Brunella  vulgaris),  red-top  {Agrostis  vidgaris), 
quack  {Triticum  repens).  Fescue  grass  {Festuca  elatior),  hairy 
panic  grass  (Panicum  capillars) — this  was  very  abundant — scour- 
ing rush  {Eqaisitum  arvense),  fox-tail  [S elaria glanca),  three  or  four 
species  of  sedge,  thistles  {Cir'sium  Lanceolatum  and  Carvense), 
golden  rod  {Solidago  Ohioensisf)  yarrow  {Achillea  Millefolium), 
fled  clover  {TrifoUum pratense),  white  clover  {Trifoliam  repens), 
reabane  {Erigeron  Pkiladelphicum) ,  daisy  fleabane  {Estrigosum), 
shepherd's  purse  {Oapsella  Bensa  pastoris),  dandelion  {Taraxi- 
cum  Densleonis),  blue  vervein  (  Verbena  hastata),  water  hoarhound 
{Lycopus  sinuatus),  sunflower  {Helianthus  strumosus).  Some  of 
these  plants  grew  together  in  patches,  while  others  were  found 
scattered  in  all  parts  of  the  lot.  Besides  these  plants  there  was 
the  stubble  of  the  preceding  year,  which  had  been  cut  pretty 
high.  Take  it  altogether  it  was  one  of  the  most  difiicult  fields  to 
plow  that  could  be  well  imagined.  The  plowing  was  executed 
in  furrows  running  north  and  south;  at  about  one-third  of  the 
length  of  the  furrow  a  line  running  east  and  west  divided  the  lands 
into  parts  differing  essentially  in  their  physical  characters.  The 
lower  or  northern  end  of  the  land  was  more  unctuous  and  adhe- 
sive, of  a  yellow  color,  and  having  fewer  stones  than  the  upper 
or  southern  portion.  It  appeared  to  the  eye  to  be  more  easy  to 
ploAv  than  the  upper  part,  but  in  every  furrow  the  dynamometer 
showed  a  greater  degree  of  resistance. 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


213 


The  annexed  Fig.,  Ill,  represents  Mr.  Holbrook's  plow  No.  &Q. 

The  next  cuts,  Figs.  112  and  113,  represent  views  of  the  Col- 
linsville  plow  in  competition  in  this  class,  and  the  separate  pieces 
which  compose  it. 

The  trials  were  made  on  lands  one-quarter  of  an  acre  in  extent. 
After  a  very  careful  examination  and  comparison,  the  judges  deci- 
ded upon  the  several  points  as  follows: 

First — Pulverizing  power:  One-half  the  judges  were  of  opinion 
that  Holbrook's  plow  pulverized  the  soil  more  effectually  than  the 
other.  The  other  half  were  of  opinion  that  the  Collins  plow  had 
pulverized  the  land  quite  as  well  as  the  Holbrook  plow.  No 
decision  was  had  upon  this  point. 

Second — Non  liability  to  choke  in  stubble:  The  judges  were 
unanimously  of  opinion  that  Holbrook's  was  superior  in  this 
respect. 

Third — Lightness  of  draught:  The  following  is  the  record  upon 
this  point: 

Holbrook's  No.  QQ. 


Width  of  furrow,  10  inches. 
Depth  of  furrmo,  7  inches. 

READING  OF  THE  DYNAMOMETER. 

DISTANCE  IN  YARDS. 

HALF  POWER  IN  POUND 
YARDS. 

1st  furrow. 

2d  furrow. 

1st  furrow. 

2d  furrow. 

In  hardest  soil  down  hill 

In  hardest  soil  up  hill 

lu  loosest  soil  down  hill 

In  loosest  soil  up  hill 

88 
81 
78 
92 

94 
102 

78 
70 

16,000 
14,700 
12,400 
12,300 

17,600 

18,300 

11,450 

9,400 

Collms'  Plow  B  14. 


Depth  of  furrow  same  as  the 
preceding. 

Width  of  furrow,  13  inches. 

READING  OF  THE  DYNAMOMETER. 

DISTANCE  IN  YARDS. 

HALF  POWER  IN  POUND 
YARDS. 

1st  furrow. 

2d  furrow. 

1st  furrow. 

2d  furrow. 

In  hardest  soil  down  hill 

In  hardest  soil  up  hill 

In  loosest  soil  down  hill 

In  loosest  soil  up  hill 

109 

119 

44 

53 

125 

119 

48 

53 

22,400 

23,000 

9,100 

10,300 

25,500 

24,500 

9,450 

10,900 

214 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


J^/ff.  772. 


PVff.  2/3. 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


215 


It  will  be  understood  that  the  "hardest  soil"  of  the  table  is 
the  southern  or  upper  end  of  the  lot,  while  the  "loosest  soil"  is 
the  northern  or  lower  end  of  the  lot.  The  "  hardest  soil"  is  the 
gravelly  portion,  the  "loosest  soil"  is  the  tenacious  portion. 

The  following  table  is  deduced  from  the  preceding,  and  shows 
the  average  number  of  pounds  required  to  draw  the  plow  through 
each  yard  of  the  whole  furrow: 


HOLBROOK. 

COLLINS. 

FURROW  6  BY  10  INCHES. 

FURROW  7  BT  13  INCHES. 

1 

1st 
furrow. 

2d 
furrow. 

Mean 
of  both. 

1st 
furrow. 

2d 
furrow. 

Mean 
of  both. 

Tn  hardest  soil  down  hill.. . 

In  hardest  soil  up  hill 

In  loosest  soil  down  hill  . . . 

In  loosest  soil  up  hill 

Average   of  work    up    and 

down  hill,  in  hard  soil . . . 
Average   of   work    up    and 

down  hill,  in  soft  soil .... 

Average  of  all  the  trials.. . . 

364 
363 
318 
289 

363 

303 

375 
359 
294 
269 

367 

281 

369 
361 
306 
279 

365 

292 

411 

391 
414 

389 

401 
401 

409 
412 
394 
411 

410 

402 

410 
401 

404 
400 

405 

401 

333 

324 

328 

401 

406 

403 

These  numbers  are  reduced  to  the  power  required  for  each 
cubic  foot  of  earth  by  dividing  the  actual  area  of  a  cross  section 
in  inches,  and  multiplying  by  144  square  inches,  which  gives  the 


following  table: 


HOLBROOK. 

! 
COLLINS. 

1st 
furrow. 

2d        Mean 
furrow,  of  both. 

1st 
furrow. 

2d 
furrow 

Mean    | 
of both. 

In  hardest  soil  down  hill. . . 

In  hardest  soil  up,  hill 

In  loosest  soil  down  hill. . . 

In  loo.sest  soil  up  hill 

Average   of    work    up    and 

down  hill,  in  hard  soil.  . . 
Average   of    work    up    and 

down  hill,  in  soft  soil. . . . 

Average  of  all  the  trials  . . . 

768 
747 
654 
550 

757 

602 

770 
738 
604 
552 

754 

578 

769 
742 
629 
551 

755 

590 

650 
612 
655 
615 

631 

635 

646 

652 
623 
651 

649 

637 

648 
632 
639 
633 

640 

636 

679 

666 

672 

633 

643 

638 

On  comparing  these  two  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  they  give 
dilibrent  results.     The  mean  averaoe  result  of  all  the  trials  as 


216  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

indicated  in  the  first  table  for  Holbrook's  plow  is  328  pounds. 
The  mean  result  for  Collins'  plow  is  403  pounds,  making  a  differ- 
ence of  75  pounds  in  favor  of  Holbrook's. 

The  mean  average  result  according  to  the  second  table  for  Hol- 
brook's plow  is  672  pounds,  and  for  Collins'  638  pounds,  making 
a  diflerence  of  34  pounds  in  favor  of  Collins. 

Before  the  dynamometer  was  applied  it  was  the  opinion  of 
several  of  the  judges  who  consulted  on  the  subject  that  as  the 
soil  on  the  lower  or  southern  end  of  the  lot  was  the  most  homo- 
geneous that  the  inditations  of  the  dynamometer  while  passing 
through  it  would  give  the  best  indications  of  the  relative  power 
consumed  by  each  plow,  and  it  was  accordingly  resolved  to  make 
separate  ol)servations  upon  it. 

On  comparing  the  power  consumed  by  each  plow  while  passing 
through  the  more  homogeneous  portion  of  the  furrow  it  will  be 
•seen  that  the  average  draught  of  Holbrook's  plow  was  590 
pounds,  while  the  average  draught  of  Collins'  was  636  pounds, 
showing  a  difference  in  favor  of  Holbrook's  of  46  pounds. 

SUMMARY. 

By  the  first  table  Holbrook  has  the  advantage  by  75  pounds. 
By  the  second  table,  in  "  loosest  soil,"  Holbrook  excels  by  46 
pounds.  By  the  second  table,  the  general  average,  Collins  excels 
by  34  pounds. 

The  question  to  be  determined  is,  which  of  the  plows  is  of  the 
easiest  draft? 

From  the  indications  of  the  first  table  it  would  seem  that  the 
Holbrook  plow  has  the  preference,  but  Collins'  plow  turned  over 
twenty-one  square  inches  more  than  Holbrook's  and  hence  appears 
to  do  more  work  with  less  power.  It  appears  from  the  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Morton  that  only  ten  per  cent  of  the  power  required 
for  plowing  is  expended  in  turning  over  the  sod,  while  the  remain- 
ing ninety  per  cent  is  absorbed  by  friction  and  by  the  clearage  of 
the  soil.  If  this  statement  of  Mr.  Morton's  is  correct,  then  it 
would  be  incorrect  to  assume  that  the  poAver  required  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  square  inches  in  the  furrow  slice,  and  therefore  the 
indications  of  the  second  table  would  not  he  correct. 

A  majority  of  the  judges  therefore  decided  that  the  Holbrook 
plow  had  the  lightest  draught,  and  they  were  confirmed  in  this 
conclusion  by  the  fact  that  in  the  homogeneous  soil  even  by  the 
second  table  the  Holbrook  ph)w  was  shown  to  be  the  b'ghtest. 


Report  of  tme  Judges. 


217 


Fourth — Ease  of  holding:  Unanimously  decided  in  favor  of 
Holbrook's  plow. 

Fifth — Durability :  Unanimously  decided  in  favor  of  Collins'  plow. 

Sixth — Cheapness:    Decided  in  favor  of  Holbrook. 

Seventh — Excellence  of  mechanical  work:  Decided  to  be  both 
equal. 

Eighth — Excellence  of  material:    Decided  in  favor  of  Collins. 

Ninth — Thorough  inversion  and  burial  of  weeds:  Unanimously 
decided  in  favor  of  Collins. 

Tenth — Even  distribution  of  wear:    No  difference  of  wear. 

Eleventh — Regularity  or  trueness  of  turning:  Decided  unani- 
mously in  favor  of  Holbrook's. 

The  preference  was  given  to  Holbrook's  plow  on  the  second, 
third,  fourth,  sixth  and  eleventh  points,  being  five  points  in  all. 
The  preference  was  given  to  Collins  on  the  fifth,  eighth  and  ninth 
points,  being  three  points  in  all,  and  were  decided  to  be  equal  on 
the  first,  seventh  and  tenth  points,  being  three  points  in  all. 

As  the  Holbrook  has  the  greatest  number  of  points  of  excel- 
lence, and  as  it  is  not  objectionable  in  any  point,  and  as  the  points 
in  which  it  excels  are  the  most  important  ones,  the  judges  agree 
to  award  it  the  gold  medal. 

Class  HI. 
Entries  were  made  in  this  class  by  A.  L.  Brearley  &  Co.,  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.,  and  F.  F.  Holbrook,  Boston. 


Motbrook—ee,  Sod. 

No  ground,  after  diligent  search,  being  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  Utica  suitable  in  all  respects  for  a  trial  of  them,  the  proprie- 
tors very  politely  waived  their  admitted  right  to  a  trial  else- 
where, and  no  trial  or  award  in  this  class  was  made. 


218  Beport  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Class  IV. 

The  State  Agricultural  Society  of  New  York  has  long  been 
deeply  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  no  one  thing  was  more 
essential  for  the  enhancement  of  the  profits  of  agriculture  than  a 
deeper  and  more  perfect  tillage,  and  that  no  one  cause  was  more 
operative  in.  causing  the  diminution  of  several  of  our  most 
important  crops  per  acre  than  shallow  plowing.  In  some  counties 
the  produce  per  acre  is  increasing,  in  others  it  is  diminishing. 
In  the  former  the  plow  runs  deeper  every  year,  in  the  latter  it 
merely  skims  the  surface.  In  these  counties  the  plow  rarely  runs 
deeper  than  three  inches.  In  some  of  our  best  counties  the 
plowing  is  done  as  deep  as  eight  or  ten  inches,  but  the  average 
depth  of  plowing  over  the  whole  area  of  the  State  does  not 
exceed  four  and  a  half  inches. 

It  is  true  that  in  some  sections  the  surface  soil  is  underlaid  by 
a  subsoil  which,  when  first  brought  to  the  surface  in  large  quan- 
tities, is  injurious  to  vegetation;  but  there  are  very  few  subsoils 
in  the  State  that  are  so  bad  that  if  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  one 
inch  of  them  is  brought  to  the  surface  where  it  can  be  exposed 
to  the  ameliorating  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  winter 
frosts  they  will  not  perceptibly  increase  the  crop.  *  If  this  pro- 
cess is  resorted  to  every  other  year,  almost  any  soil  may  be  deep- 
ened in  sixteen  years  from  four  inches  to  twelve  inches,  thus 
trebling  the  range  of  pasture  for  the  roots  of  plants,  and  doubling 
if  not  trebling  the  amount  of  the  crop. 

This  is  not  the  language  of  theory,  but  of  sober  and  often 
repeated  experiments  made  in  every  section  of  the  State. 

We  might  write  a  volume  filled  with  experiments  carefully 
made  by  weight  and  measure  to  illustrate  the  importance  of  deep 
plowing,  but  we  content  ourselves  with  a  statement  submitted  to 
us  by  an  eminent  agriculturalist  and  statesman  whose  name  would 
be  a  suflicient  guarantee  for  its  correctness  in  any  part  of  the 
United  States,  which  is  as  follows: 

"Some  two  or  three  weeks  since  I  visited  a  farm  near  here 
which  a  young  man  bought  six  years  ago  who  used  to  work  for 
me.  When  he  bought  this  place  it  had  a  barn  on  it  30  by  40 
feet,  and  it  held  the  entire  crop  that  the  farm  was  capable  of 
jiroducing.  He  built  a  barn  the  first  year  100  feet  long  by  40 
feet  wide  and  20  foot  posts,  and  stabling  all  below  this.     This 

♦  Mr.  Howard  dissents  from  this  opinion. 


Report  of  the  Judges.  219 

fall  his  barns  are  nearly  full;  ten  or  twelve  tons  more  of  straw 
or  hay  would  entirely  fill  them.  He  has  between  800  and  900 
l)nshels  of  corn,  550  l>iishels  of  oats,  some  rye  and  buckwheat, 
potatoes,  and  500  bushels  of  carrots.  The  farm  had  been  shal- 
low tilled  for  sixty  or  seventy  years,  closely  cropped,  and  the 
manuring  was  not  liberal.  He  commenced  with  some  twelve  or 
fifteen  acres  of  sod,  plowing  it  in  November  nine  inches  deep, 
manuring-  it  the  next  spring  with  twenty-five  two-horse  loads  per 
acre,  and  cross  plowing  it  about  four  inches  deep,  and  planting 
Avith  corn,  &c.  The  second  year  the  field  was  stocked  to  grass 
with  a  grain  crop,  and  another  field  of  twelve  or  fifteen  acres  of 
sod  taken  up  and  managed  like  the  first.  In  this  wa}^  he  has  gone 
on  from  year  to  year,  until  now  he  has  plowed  all  the  plowable 
portion  of  his  farm  nine  inches  deep,  which  is  nearly  twice  as 
deep  as  it  had  ever  before  been  worked.  Next  year  he  com- 
mences to  go  over  the  same  ground  again  in  a  similar  way. 
excepting  that  the  plowing  will  invariably  be  from  two  to  three 
inches  deeper  than  before." 

Entertaining  these  views  the  Society  determined  to  avail  itself 
of  this  trial  in  order  to  turn  the  attention  of  the  farmers  of  the 
State  to  the  importance  of  deeper  plowing  than  they  have  been 
accustomed  to,  and  to  furnish  them,  if  possible,  with  better  facili- 
ties for  accomplishing  it  than  they  had  hitherto  enjoyed. 

It  therefore  offered  its  highest  prize — the  large  gold  medal — 
for  "a  plow  for  stubble  land  which  will  cut  a  furrow  twelve 
inches  deep,  with  three  horses,  which  will  raise  the  lowest  soil  to 
the  surface  of  the  furrow,  and  which  Avill  not  be  less  than  five 
inches  wide." 

It  knew  when  it  made  the  offer  that  a  furrow  turned  so  as  to 
lie  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  after  reversal  must  have  its 
depth  in  the  ratio  of  its  breadth  as  two  to  three,  but  it  refused 
to  assume  any  limit  to  the  ingenuity  of  American  engineers  and 
mechanics,  and  sent  out  its  ofier  to  the  w^orld  hoping  rather  than 
expecting  that  it  would  be  successfully  competed  for. 

Two  plows  were  entered  for  this  premium,  both  of  them  of  a 
very  superior  character,  and  both  doing  the  work  which  was 
called  for. 

The  trial  was  in  the  same  field  in  which  CUiss  No.  II  was  tried, 
and  the  description  of  the  soil  given  under  that  class  will  answer 
for  this,  only  as  the  plowing  was  so  much  deeper  in  Class  IV  the 
difiiculties  arising  from  the  impacted  gravel  were  greatly  exag- 


220 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


geratetl.  It  may  be  that  worse  land  to  plow  can  be  found,  but 
none  of  the  judges  has  ever  seen  worse. 

The  plow  entered  by  Collins  &  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  was  a  steel 
plow  known  as  C  3.     Weight,  95  pounds.     Price,  $25. 

The  plow  entered  by  F.  F.  Holbrook  was  a  cast  iron  plow, 
known  as  Plow  No.  69.     Weight,  139  pounds.     Price,  $24. 

This  plow  is  furnished  with  two  mould-boards  (as  is  the  case 
with  all  Mr.  Holbrook's  plows),  one  of  which  is  used  for  sod,  the 
other  for  stubble  plowing;  one  of  them  may  be  detached  and  be 
replaced  by  the  other  in  a  very  short  time  by  any  plowman. 

The  judgment  on  each  point  was  as  follows: 

First — Pulverizing  power:  Unanimously  decided  in  favor  of 
Holbrook's. 

Second — Non  liability  to  choke  in  stubble:  Unanimously 
decided  in  ftivor  of  Holbrook's. 

TJdrd — Lightness  of  draught  in  connection  with  pulverizing 
power:     The  following  tables  show  the  results  for 

Holbrook's  iVb.  69: 


Size  of  furrow  turned,  \2inches 
wide  and  12  inches  deep. 

READING   OF  THE  DYNAxMOMETER. 

1 

DISTANCE  IN  YARDS. 

HALF  POWER  IN  POUND 
YARDS. 

1st  furrow. 

2d  furrow. 

1st  furrow. 

2d  furrow. 

In  hardest  soil  down  hill 

In  hardest  soil  up  hill 

In  easiest  soil  down  hill 

In  easiest  soil  up  hill 

113i 
126 

57^ 
47 

117 

116 

57 

54 

33,300 
41,200 
19,800 
16,700 

35,700 
35,400 
19,550 
16,800 

Collins  &  Go.'s  C  3. 


Size  of  furrow  turned,  12  inches 
wide  and  12  inches  deep. 

READING  OF  THE  DYNAMOMETER. 

DISTANCE  IN  YARDS. 

HALF  POWER  IN  POUN  D 
YARDS. 

1st  furrow. 

2d  furrow. 

1st  furrow. 

1 
2d  furrow. 

In  hardest  soil  down  hill 

In  hardest  soil  up  hill 

70 
761 

85 
98 

lOU 

SH 

64^ 

88^ 

25,900 
22,000 
33,155 
27,700 

31,800 
25,750 
28,000 
29,150 

in  easiest  soil  down  hill 

In  easiest  soil  up  hill 

Report  of  the  Judges. 


221 


The  following  table  is  computed  from  the  preceding  one,  and 
shows  how  many  pounds  were  required  to  draw  each  plow 
through  each  yard  in  each  furrow.  For  example,  if  a  rope  had 
been  attached  to  the  bridle  of  Collins'  plow  and  passed  over  a 
pulley,  it  would  require  a  weight  of  740  pounds,  acting  by  its 
own  gravity,  to  pull  it  one  yard  of  the  hardest  soil  down  hill  in 
the  first  furrow,  and  617  pounds  in  the  second  furrow: 


i 

COLLINS  &  CO. 

HOLBROOK.          1 

1 

1st 
furrow. 

2d 
furrow . 

Aver- 
age. 

1st 
furrow. 

2d 
furrow. 

Aver- 
age. 

111  hardest  soil  down  hill. . . 
In  hardest  soil  up  hill 

Average 

740 

577 

617 
609 

678 
593 

587 
654 

610 
610 

598 
632 

658 

613 

635 

620 

610 

615 

In  easiest  soil  down  hill .... 
In  easiest  soU  up  hdl 

Average 

780 
565 

752 
659 

766 
612 

666 
711 

686 
622 

676 
666 

672 

705 

689 

688 

654 

671 

Average   of   the    two    soils 
down  hill 

760 
671 

684 
634 

722 
602 

626 
682 

648 
616 

637 
649 

Average   of   the    two    soils 
up  hill 

Average 

665 

659 

662 

654 

632 

643 

On  examining  the  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  the  average  power 
required  to  pull  the  Collins  plow  in  the  hardest  soil  was  20  pounds 
more  than  tliat  required  to  pull  the  Holbrook  plow;  in  the  easiest 
it  required  18  pounds  more;  the  average  of  all  the  pulls  was  19 
pounds  more. 

This  fully  establishes  the  fact  that  the  Holbrook  plow  has  the 
lightest  draught. 

N.  B. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  above  table  also  represents 
the  power  required  to  turn  each  cubic  foot  of  earth,  because  the 
area  of  the  cross  section  is  just  a  square  foot. 

Fourth — Ease  of  holding:     Decided  in  favor  of  Holbrook's. 

Fifth — Durability:     Decided  in  favor  of  Collins'. 

Sixth — Cheapness:     Decided  in  favor  of  Holbrook's. 

Seventh — Excellence  of  mechanical  work:     Adjudged  equal. 

Eighth — Excellence  of  material:     Decided  in  favor  of  Collins'. 

Ninth — Thorough  inversion  and  burial  of  weeds:  Decided  in 
favor  of  Holbrook's. 


222 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


Tenth — Even  distribution  of  wear:  The  difference  in  this 
respect  was  very  slight,  but  while  every  part  of  Holbrook's 
mould-board  was  evenly  polished,  there  were  a  few  points  in 
Collins'  which  had  evidently  less  rubbed.  Slight  as  the  difference 
was,  there  was  a  difference,  and  we  were  therefere  compelled  to 
decide  this  point  in  Holbrook's  favor. 

Eleventh — Eegularity  or  trueness  of  turning:  Decided  in  favor 
of  Holbrook's. 

SUMMARY. 

The  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  sixth,  ninth,  tenth  and  eleventh 
points,  eight  points  in  all,  were  decided  in  favor  of  Holbrook's 
plow.  The  fifth  and  eighth  points  were  decided  in  favor  of  Col- 
lins' plow,  and  they  were  adjudged  to  be  equal  on  the  seventh. 

The  judges  therefore  decided  that  Holbrook's  plow  was  the 
best  one,  and  as  it  fully  met  the  requisitions  of  the  Society,  they 
adjudged  to  it  the  Large  Gold  Medai.. 

The  annexed  cut.  Fig.  114,  gives  a  tolerably  clear  idea  of  the 
appearance  of  Holbrook's  prize  plow  No.  69. 


It  will  be  observed  that  it  enters  the  ground  with  a  very  low 
inclined  plane,  rises  by  an  easy  curve  which  elevates  the  slice 
into  the  air,  and  then  by  a  succession  of  sharp  twists  in  different 
directions  it  cracks  the  slice,  and  if  it  is  in  a  tolerably  dry  condi- 
tion reduces  it  to  powder. 

The  Society  called  for  a  plow  "  which  will  raise  the  lowest  soil 
to  the  surface  of  the  furrow."  This  was  done  by  this  plow  at 
Utica  to  the  very  letter  of  the  requirement,  but  as  we  desire  that 
the  public  may  exactly  understand  the  whole  case,  we  must  state 
that  owing  to  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  soil  and  its  minute  pul- 
verization, the  lowest  soil,  after  Ijeing  lifted  to  the  top  of  the 


Report  of  the  Judges.  223 

furrow,  fell  back  again  into  the  furrow  channel  to  some  extent. 
We  did  not  consider  this  an  objection,  as  it  promotes  that  mixing 
of  the  soil  which  we  have  shown  to  produce  such  good  effects; 
but  it  is  proper  to  add  that  we  saAV  this  plow  work  subsequently 
in  the  soil  of  the  Connecticut  valley,  where  there  was  more  moist- 
ure in  the  soil,  and  there,  none  of  the  soil  fell  back  into  the  fur- 
row channel,  but  the  furrow,  twelve  inches  deep,  was  turned 
over  as  handsomely  as  could  be  desired  and  remained  just  as  it 
was  first  laid 

The  adhesive  character  of  the  soil  in  this  valley  enabled  us  to 
study  the  action  of  the  twist  of  the  plow  to  great  advantage. 
We  could  see  the  horizontal  laminations  and  the  vertical  and 
transverse  cracks  just  as  they  were  produced  by  the  various 
curved  lines  on  the  surface  of  the  mould-board,  opening  the  whole 
interior  of  the  furrow  slice  to  the  air. 

We  are  aware  that  we  shall  shock  the  prejudices  of  all  farmers 
by  the  assertion,  but  we  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  our  delib- 
erate conviction  that  this  plow  put  the  land  at  Utica  in  a  better 
condition  for  a  crop  than  it  could  possibly  have  been  put  by  the 
spade.  We  have  seen  very  active  laborers  who  have  spaded 
sixteen  square  rods  of  earth  a  day  to  a  depth  of  seven  inches,  but 
the  average  day's  work  does  not  exceed  ten  square  rods  a  day. 
One  man  and  three  horses  will  plow  two  hundred  and  forty  rods 
a  day;  or,  in  other  words,  three  horses  will  do  the  work  of 
twenty-three  men,  and  in  addition  will  stir  it  five  inches  deeper 
and  leave  it  in  a  mellower  condition.  There  can  be  no  question, 
therefore,  of  the  great  value  of  this  plow.  Its  performances 
astonished  every  one  who  saw  it  operate.  A  portion  of  the  huul 
plowed  was  the  site  of  an  ancient  brick  yard,  containing  a  thick 
stratum  of  angular  fragments  of  burned  brick  tightly  imbedded 
in  an  indurated  bed  of  blue  clay,  yet  the  plow  passed  through  it 
without  stopping,  and  completely  pulverized  every  part  of  its 
immense  furrow  slice  of  twelve  inches  square.  In  two  or  three 
instances  the  plow  was  arrested  suddenly  by  large  boulders  deeply 
impacted  in  the  soil,  but  no  part  gave  way  in  the  least,  even 
when  subjected  to  this  sudden  strain.  This,  in  our  opinion,  is  a 
conclusive  test  of  the  great  strength  of  this  plow,  and  of  the 
judicious  distribution  of  the  material  which  enters  into  its  com- 
position to  resist  the  strains  and  shocks  which  it  has  to  encounter. 

After  a  most  careful  and  thorough  examination  of  all  the  sepa- 
rate parts  of  this  plow,  considered  individually  and  in  combina 


224  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

tion,  having  applied  all  the  tests  known  to  us,  and  having  seen  it 
work  in  a  variety  of  soils,  and  under  very  diversified  circum- 
stances, we  are  compelled  to  record  our  deliberate  opinion  that 
this  plow  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  that  the 
mechanic  arts  have  ever  made  to  agriculture,  and  that  its  wide 
diffusion  through  the  State  of  New  York  will  add  immensely  to 
the  profits  of  agriculture  by  greatly  increasing  the  fertility  of 
land  at  a  very  small  cost. 

We  subjoin  a  full  and  minute  description  of  the  plow  and  its 
constituent  parts. 

Description  of  F.  F.  Holbrook's  Plow  No.  69 — Class  IV, 
Entry  No.  19. 

There  is  a  point  in  every  mould-board  which  coincides  with  the 
edge  of  the  slice  at  the  instant  that  it  assumes  the  perpendicular 
position,  and  which  is  vertically  above  the  sole  of  the  plow,  the 
exact  breadth  of  the  furrow.  This  is  called  the  zero  iwint,  and  a 
vertical  line  drawu  through  it  and  produced  to  the  sole  is  the 
zei^o  line.  In  measuring  this  and  all  other  plows  described  in  this 
report,  we  have  dropped  a  plumb  line  to  the  plane  of  the  sole 
and  measured  in  a  straight  line  backward  and  forward  to  the  point 
from  the  zero  line  thus  ascertained. 

Inches. 

From  the  zero  point  to  the  tip  of  the  handle 41| 

From  the  zero  point  to  the  second  cross-brace : 27| 

From  the  zero  point  to  the  first  cross-brace IGj 

From  the  zero  point  to  top  of  flanch  where  the  handles  are  secured 11 2 

From  the  zero  point  to  bottom  of  handles 7 

From  the  zero  point  to  rear  edge  of  mould-board 3| 

All  the  above  measurements  are  rear;  the  rest  are  in  front  of 
the  zero  point. 

Inches. 

From  the  zero  point  to  heel  of  land  side 1 

From  the  zero  point  to  centre  of  standard IBs 

From  the  zero  point  to  rear  end  of  sole  of  share 15 

From  the  zero  point  to  front  of  standard I64 

From  the  zero  point  to  rear  edge  of  coulter  at  top  of  beam 22^ 

From  the  zero  point  to  angle  of  feather 21 

From  the  zero  point  to  front  edge  of  coulter  at  top  of  beam 251 

From  the  zero  point  to  fore  end  of  feather 311 

From  the  zero  point  to  point  of  share 331 

From  the  zero  point  to  point  of  coulter 35 

From  the  zero  point  to  centre  of  wheel 43  4 

From  the  zero  point  to  fore  end  of  beam 51i 

From  the  zero  point  to  centre  of  holes  in  bridle 525 


Beport  of  the  Judges.  225 

The  Avhole  length  of  the  implement,  from  the  tip  ot  tne  nandle 
to  tile  bridle,  is  therefore  6  feet  1\  inches.  The  whole  length  on 
the  hind  side  is  2  feet  8|  inches,  and  from  the  point  to  the  rear 
edge  of  the  mould-board  is  3  feet  \  inch. 

Vertical  Measurements. 

Inches. 

From  the  tip  of  the  handles  to  base  line 343 

From  the  highest  point  of  the  handles  to  base  line 38 

From  the  second  cross-brace  to  base  line 3I5 

From  the  first  cross-brace  to  base  line 22 

From  the  highest  point  of  the  handle  flanges  to  base  line 19 1 

From  the  upper  and  rear  end  of  beam  to  base  line 17 

From  the  upper  edge  of  beam,  where  the  standard  passes,  to  base  line. .  22 2 

From  the  upper  edge  of  beam,  in  front  of  coulter,  to  base  line 22 

From  the  upper  edge  of  beam,  extreme  front,  to  base  line 20 

From  the  centre  of  lovrer  hole  in  bridle  to  base  line IGs 

From  the  centre  of  upper  hole  to  base  line 22 

The  Handles 

Are  made  of  oak  wood.  The  left  one  lies  6|  inches  to  the  left 
of  the  plane  of  the  land  side.  The  right  handle  is  30  inches 
from  the  tip  of  the  left  one.  The  distance  (measured  on  the 
inside)  between  the  handles  at  first  cross-brace  is  2|  inches;  at 
the  second  cross-brace,  17  inches.  Width  betAveen  them  where 
they  enter  the  flanges,  1|  inches.  From  the  lower  end  of  the 
handles  to  the  top  of  the  flange,  9|  inches;  to  first  cross-brace, 
16  inches;  to  second  cross-brace,  31  inches.  The  three  last  meas- 
urements are  made  upward  in  the  line  of  the  slope  of  the  han- 
dles. They  are  2i  inches  wide  and  1|  inches  thick.  The  first 
cross-brace  is  made  of  iron,  cast  hollow  in  the  middle,  and  with 
flanges  at  either  end  bevelled  to  suit  the  spread  of  the  handles; 
a  bolt  rod  runs  through  it,  headed  on  the  right  side  and  secured 
by  a  nut  on  the  outside  of  the  left  one.  The  second  brace  is 
made  of  wood,  shouldered,  with  the  ends  projecting  through 
holes  in  the  handles  made  to  receive  them,  an  iron  bolt  passing 
through  half  an  inch  above  them,  headed  on  the  left  and  nutted 
on  the  outside  of  the  right  one  brings  their  upper  j)ai't  firmly 
together  and  prevents  their  outward  flexure  as  the  wooden  one 
prevents  their  inner  flexure.  The  rear  standard,  Fig.  115,  B, 
rises  upward  and  backward,  having  on  its  upper  extremity 
flanges,  c  d^  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep  on  both  sides  and 
on  the  front  and  rear  faces  which  receive  the  lower  ends  of  the 
handles,  and  which  are  bolted  throuirh  it. 

15 


226  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Beam. 

A  step,  Fig.  115,  b,  projects  If  inches  forward  from  the  front 
edge  of  the  rear  standard;  a  nipple,  e,  also  projects  forward  a 
little  above  the  step  which  enters  the  rear  end  of  the  beam,  and 
resists  its  lateral  movement.  The  beam  rests  npon  the  step,  and 
is  secured  hy  a  bolt  running  diagonall}^  through  it  and  through 
the  rear  standard,  which  is  headed  on  the  beam  and  nutted  on  the 
standard.  Its  size.  Fig,  114,  «,  at  this  point  is  3  inches  vertically 
and  2|  inches  horizontally.  At  the  point.  Fig.  114,  5,  where  the 
standard  bolt  passes  through  it,  it  is  vertically  4|  inches  and 
horizontally  2|  inches.  At  the  extreme  front,  c,  its  cross  section 
is  2^  inches  square.  Its  whole  length,  from  front  to  rear,  meas- 
ured along  the  line  of  its  upper  curves,  is  5  feet  i  inch.  Meas- 
ured along  a  straight  line,  from  heel  to  point,  it  is  4  feet  11 
inches.  Its  upper  surface  rises  from  the  heel,  curving  upward 
and  forward  to  the  centre  of  the  front  standard;  from  thence  it 
descends  in  a  slight  curve  to  its  front  extremity.  The  following 
measurements,  vertically  from  the  base  line  to  the  top  of  the 
beam,  will  more  clearly  show  the  character  of  the  curves: 

From  the  top  of  the  heel  of  the  beam,  a,  where  it  joins  the 
rear  standard,  1G|  inches;  one  foot  in  advance  of  this  point  it  is 
21|  inches;  at  three  feet  it  is  221  inches;  at  four  feet  it  is  20| 
inches;  at  the  fore  end  it  is  19|  inches. 

The  vertical  measurements  from  the  same  points  on  the  base 
line  to  the  under  side  of  the  beam  are:  At  the  heel,  15  inches; 
one  foot  in  advance,  17^  inches;  at  two  feet,  17|  inches;  at  three 
feet  it  is  17|  inches;  at  four  feet  it  is  17^  inches;  at  its  front  it  is 
17|  inches.  The  material  is  of  white  oak,  and  its  line  of  direc- 
tion is  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the  land  side.  The  land  side 
face  of  the  beam  at  the  heel  is  1|  inches  within  the  land  side 
plane,  and  at  the  front  it  is  If  inches  within  it.  The  attachments 
to  the  beam  are,  first,  the  bridle;  second,  the  Avheel;  third,  the 
coulter;  fourth,  the  skim-plow. 

The  Bridle, 

Fig.  114,  d,  consists  of  a  semi-circular  iron  arc  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  in  front  of  the  fore  end  of  the  beam,  pierced  with  seven 
holes  which  pass  horizontally  through  it,  the  upper  one  being  six 
inches  above  the  lower  one.  A  strap  extends  backward  from  the 
upper  and  lower  part  of  the  arc  8^  inches  in  length,  embracing 
the  upper  and  lower  faces  of  the  beam,  which  arc  pierced  with 


Report  of  the  Judges.  227 

throe  holes  respectively  3|,  4^  and  8  inches  behind  the  arc.  A 
bolt  passes  through  the  rearmost  boles,  on  which  the  bridle  rotates 
as  a  centre  horizontally.  A  bolt  passes  through  either  the  3i  or 
4^  inch  holes,  which  secures  the  bridle  in  the  line  of  the  beam, or 
it  may  be  thrust  through  holes  drilled  in  the  beam,  one  inch  to 
the  right  or  left  of  the  central  holes,  which  causes  the  plow"  to 
take  more  or  less  land.  An  extent  of  lateral  motion,  amounting 
to  3^  inches,  is  secured  by  this  arrangement,  while  the  tendency 
earthward  is  regulated  by  the  vertical  holes  in  the  bridle. 

The  WJieeL 
Fig.  114,/,  is  made  of  cast  iron,  10^  inches  in  diameter  and  1| 
inches  wide.  The  land  side  face  is  a  flat  plate,  perforated  by  five 
holes,  each  3  inches  in  diameter,  and  having  lateral  ril)S  on  each 
side  between  the  holes.  Its  centre,  when  running  at  a  depth  of  8 
inches,  is  9  inches  behind  the  fore  end  of  the  beam.  It  is  huno-  on 
a  U  shaped  attachment,  a  c  b,  Fig.  84,  having  its  right  limb  at  its 
upper  extremity  sharply  curved  and  prolonged  to  the  right. 
Eighteen  inches  behind  the  fore  end  of  the  beam  a  bolt  passes 
horizontally  through  the  right  extremity  of  the  limb  and  through 
the  beam  of  the  plow,  on  which  it  rotates  vertically.  The  axle  of 
the  wheel  projects  tow^ards  the  left  from  the  low^est  portion  of  the 
curve.  A  cast  iron  button,  having  a  pin  on  its  rear  extremity 
which  projects  towards  the  right  and  enters  the  beam  about  half 
an  inch,  is  its  centre  of  rotation.  It  has  a  shoulder  cut  at  its  fore 
end,  through  which  the  left  limb  slides  upward  and  downward. 
A  bolt  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  button  and  through  the 
beam,  having  a  thumb  screw  on  the  right  side  of  the  beam,  by 
wdiich  the  left  limb  of  the  wheel  attachment  is  securely  clamped 
at  any  point  through  a  vertical  range  of  ten  inches. 

TJie  Coulter, 
Fig.  114,  h,  is  2  feet  2|  inches  long;  cutting  edge,  10|  inches;  it 
is  3  inches  wnde  and  i  inch  thick,  and  has  a  curved  taper  from  the 
back  to  the  point.  The  angle  which  its  cutting  edge  forms  Avith 
the  base  line  is  64  degrees.  Its  point  stands  4  inches  above  the 
sole  and  \  of  an  inch  inw^ard  from  the  plane  of  the  land  side,  in 
which  respect  it  varies  very  materially  from  most  plows.  It  is 
set  against  the  land  side  of  the  beam,  to  which  it  is  secured  by  a 
clamp  formed  on  three  sides  by  a  |-inch  round  iron  rod,  having 
screws  cut  on  the  ends  which  project  beyond  the  right  face  of  the 
beam.     Cast  iron  plates,  k  and  e,  furnished  with  three  semi-cylin- 


228  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

dricul  and  horizontal  depressions,  are  placed  one  above  the  beam 
in  front  of  the  coulter,  and  the  other  below  the  beam  and  behind 
the  coulter.  On  these  the  rods  rest,  fitting  into  the  semi-cylin- 
drical depressions.  When  the  cutting  angle  is  as  above  described, 
the  rods  are.placed  in  the  middle  depression  in  each  plate.  If  it 
is  desired  to  vary  the  angle,  so  as  to  make  it  greater  of  less,  the 
rods  are  shifted  into  corresponding  depressions.  An  iron  strap, 
m,  perforated  with  holes  at  each  end,  passes  over  the  projecting 
ends  of  these  cross-rods,  and  is  screwed  tightly  against  the  beam 
by  nuts,  which  keeps  the  coulter  firmly  in  the  angle  in  which  it 
has  been  set.  The  coulter  is  kneed  inward  to  the  furrow  side  so 
as  to  bring  its  land-side  face  nearly  into  the  plane  of  the  land 
side. 

The  reader  will  observe,  on  examining  the  figure  of  this  plow, 
which  we  have  given  al)ove,  or,  still  better,  the  plow  itself  in  our 
museum,  that  the  line  of  the  shin  or  breast  varies  considerably 
from  any  others.  Instead  of  being  curved,  it  is  nearly  in  a  straight 
line;  it  is  a  long  taper  wedge  which  insinuates  itself  into  the 
ground  very  easily;  and  then,  when  the  slice  is  once  raised  into 
the  air,  there  is  a  sharp  and  sudden  twist  of  the  wing  of  the 
mould-board  which  breaks  it  in  pieces  and  completes  the  pulver- 
ization. As  an  illustration  of  the  lifting  power  of  the  plow,  we 
may  mention  that  we  repeatedly  found,  on  measurement,  that  the 
upper  edge  of  the  slice,  when  it  was  at  the  extreme  point  of  the 
wing  of  the  mould-board,  was  28  inches  above  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow.  It  may  be  further  observed  that  this  plow,  like  all  those 
exhibited  by  Mr.  Holbrook,  are  susceptible  of  four  changes:  first, 
they  may  be  used  as  sod  plows;  second,  by  a  change  of  mould- 
board,  it  may  be  converted  into  a  stubble  plow;  third,  by  the 
addition  of  a  skim  plow  on  the  front  of  the  l)eam,  it  may  be 
changed  to  a  sod  and  subsoil  plow;  fourth,  by  a  change  in  the 
position  of  the  coulter,  it  may  be  made  to  turn  a  lap  furrow  or  a 
flat  furrow. 

The  Skrm  Plow 

Is  attached  to  the  land  side  of  the  beam  by  two   bolts   passing 

through  the  standard  and  fastened  by  nuts  on  the  mould-board 

side. 

The  Land  Side,  Mould-Board  and  Standard 

Are  all  cast  in  one  piece,  and  are  braced  by  a  rod  running  from 
the  rear  of  the  mould-board  to  the  land  side  cast  in  the  same 
piece   with  them.     The    lower   end   of   the    mould-board    has  a 


Report  of  the  Judges.  229 

shoulder  into  which  the  share  is  titted  and  seemed  by  one  bolt. 
The  standard,  Fig.  116,  H,  is  10  inches  high  and  6  inches  wide, 
and,  including  the  flange,  which  runs  around  the  top  and  l)oth 
sides,  is  1  inch  thick.  It  has  an  oblong  opening,  c,  of  7  inches 
by  2i,  the  sides  of  which  are  also  ribbed.  There  are  iive  holes 
on  each  side  of  this  opening  which  permit  a  vertical  range  of  six 
inches  to  the  sole  of  the  share.  The  land  side  is  a  continuation 
of  the  standard,  and  the  breast  is  a  continuation  of  its  curve. 
The  length  of  the  sole  of  the  land  side  is  6|  inches.  The  curve 
of  the  mould-board  differs  from  that  of  the  plow.  The  tirst  line, 
coinciding  with  a  straight  edge,  runs  from  the  point  of  junction 
between  the  share  and  land  side  at  the  breast  back  to  a  point  on 
the  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board,  "^-f^  inches  above  the  plane  of 
the  sole,  which  makes  an  angle  with  that  plane  of  6°  11'.  The 
upper  line  runs  from  a  point  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  mould- 
board,  1\  inches  above  the  sole,  to  a  point  in  the  rear  edge,  8^ 
inches  above  it,  and  makes  an  angle  with  it  of  AP  34';  the  inter- 
mediate lines  vary  in  proportion.  The  vertical  lines,  in  which  a 
straight  edire  coincides  with  the  surface,  varv  more  in  their  angles 
with  the  tirst  horizontal  line  than  the  lower  share.  Near  the 
standard  this  angle  is  71°;  the  next  towards  the  rear  makes  an 
angle  of  83°;  the  next,  85°;  the  next,  87°;  the  next,  91°;  the 
next,  97°,  and  the  one  nearest  to  the  rear  edge  is  113°. 

Share. 

Length  of  the  land  side  of  the  share,  4|  inches;  length  of  the 
point,  li  inches;  length  of  the  feather,  9  inches;  distance  of  angle 
of  feather  from  bottom  of  the  mould-board,  2|  inches.  The 
coulter  is  cast  in  the  same  piece  with  the  share;  it  rises  at  an 
angle  of  43°,  and  is  concave  on  its  edge.  The  point  is  1\  inches 
l)road.  The  sole  of  the  share  and  of  the  land  side  both  slope 
upward.  A  straight  edge  laid  from  the  heel  to  the  point  forms 
the  base  of  a  triangle  Avhose  apex  is  at  the  junction  of  the  share 
and  land  side,  and  whose  height  is  i  inch.  The  face  of  the 
land  side  slopes  towards  the  furrow  side;  at  4  inches  above  the 
])ase  line  it  is  ^  inch  inward.  The  top  of  the  coulter  is  \  of  an 
inch  inward  from  the  land  side  plane.  The  breadth  from  the 
angle  of  the  feather  to  the  land  side  is  7|  inches. 

We  now  come  to  the  plow  proper,  or  to  those  parts  which  are 
directly  concerned  in  turning  over  the  furrow.  These  are  the 
share,  the  land  side  and  the  mould-board,  with  their  attachments. 


230  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

The  Share^ 
Fig.  114,  n  (outside),  Fig.  116,  g,  (iusicle  view),  is  made  of  cast 
iron,  and  forms  part  of  the  land  side  and  part  of  the  mould-board 
side  of  the  plow.  Its  length  on  the  land  side  is  9  inches;  length 
of  point,  2  inches;  length  of  share  on  the  mould-board  side,  Fig. 
116,  a  5,  measured  from  the  point,  over  the  feather,  to  its  inter- 
section with  the  mould-board,  16^  inches;  width  from  land  side 
to  the  angle  of  the  feather.  Fig.  114,  o,  10|  inches;  length  of 
feather,  Fig.  114,  o  p^  Fig,  116,  c  cZ,  13|  inches  (measured  on  the 
sole);  width  of  point.  Fig.  116,  a  a\  \\  inches.  The  feather 
extends  2  inches  beyond  the  edge  of  the  mould-board  to  the 
right,  and  is  bolted  to  it  by  two  bolts.  Fig.  116,  e/",  secured  by 
nuts.  At  the  line  where  the  mould-board  meets  the  share  at  the 
breast  its  vertical  height  above  the  base  line  is  3|  inches.  At  the 
point  where  the  upper  surface  of  the  mould-board  meets  the 
share  the  height  is  2  inches.  Distance  from  the  angle  of  the 
feather  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  is  3^  inches.  The 
land-side  of  the  share  begins  to  depart  from  the  plane  of  the 
land  side  towards  the  left  from  the  point  of  its  junction  with  it 
at  its  fore  end,  at  the  point  it  stands  \  of  an  inch  more  to  the  left 
than  the  plane  of  the  land  side.  The  land  side  face  of  the  share 
slopes  vertically  inward  towards  the  furrow  side,  in  conformity 
with  the  slope  of  the  land  side. 

The  Land  Side. 
The  sole  of  the  land  side,  r.  Fig.  115,  is  cast  in  a  separate 
piece,  1  inch  deep  and  2  inches  wide  at  the  rear  end,  and  -^^  of  an 
inch  deep  and  |  of  an  inch  wide  at  the  front  end.  It  receives  the 
lower  edge  of  the  land  side  plate  on  its  upper  surfiice.  On  tho 
furrow  side  it  has  two  semi-circular  steps  of  li  inch  radius,  e  and  /", 
one  being  6  inches  and  the  other  21  inches  in  the  rear  of  its  foro 
end,  through  which  it  is  bolted  to  the  land  side  plate.  Through 
these  the  sole  is  bolted  to  the  land  side  plate,  the  heads  being  on 
the  outside  and  the  nuts  on  the  inside.  The  holes  in  the  plate  are 
countersunk  to  receive  the  heads  of  the  bolts,  so  that  they  lie  in 
its  plane.  The  sole  extends  ^  an  inch  to  the  left  of  the  plane  on 
the  land  side,  at  the  rear  end,  running  out  to  nothing  on  the  front 
end,  where  it  joins  the  share.  A  straight  edge,  extending  from 
the  heel  of  the  land  side  to  the  point  of  the  share,  will  form  the 
base  of  a  triangle  whose  apex  is  at  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
land  side  and  the  share,  and  whose  altitude  will  be  \  of  an  inch. 
If  the  sole  of  the  laud  side  is  jiroduccd  to  the  poiut,  the  end  of  the 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


231 


line  will  be  |  of  an  inch  above  it;  or  it  may  lie  otherwise  stated, 
that  the  sole  of  the  land  slopes  upward  and  forward,  and  the 
sole  of  the  share  slopes  upward  and  backward  to  the  point  of 
their  junction.  The  object  of  giving  it  this  concavity  is  to 
diminish  friction  and  to  give  dip  or  eartliAvard  tendency  at  all 
times,  together  with  steadiness  of  motion.  The  land  side  is 
inclined  vertically  inward,  so  tliat  at  12  inches  al)ove  the  sole  it 
inclines  1^  inches  from  the  perpendicular.  The  front  standard, 
A,  is  cast  in  the  same  piece  with  the  land-side  plate;  its  front  face 
forms  a  continuous  curve  with  the  breast,  its  radius  g-rowin^ 
smaller  as  it  rises,  until  at  length  the  line  of  the  curve  moves 
forward.  It  is  flat  on  the  land  side  and  convex  on  the  furrow 
side.  It  is  cast  hollow,  which  permits  a  bolt  to  pass  vertically 
through  it,  its  head  being  on  the  under  side  and  a  nut  which 
screws  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  beam.  It  is  3  inches  wide 
and  li  inches  thick.  Its  upper  termination  is  in  a  plate,  a,  6 
inches  long  and  nearly  as  broad  as  the  beam  which  rests  upon  it. 
The  rear  standard  is  cast  in  the  same  piece  with  the  land  side 
plate,  and  is  provided  with  flanges  at  its  upper  end,  which 
receives  the  lower  ends  of  the  handles,  as  described  above. 

We  give  the  annexed  cut  (Fig.  115)  of  the  front  and  rear 
standard,  A  and  B;  a  and  b  are  the  flanges  upon  which  the  beam 
rests;  c  and  d  the  flanges  which  support  the  handles.  D,  the 
d 

J) 


f—    PI 

ni 

t    r 

TT- 

\ 

,  t 

— 

"" 

C 

'       -          -ItUIII: 

J^/^.  //.5. 
dog-brace.     One  of  the  teeth  enters  the  staple  seen  on  the  inside 
of  the  hmd  side;  the  other  enters  into  a  corresponding  staple,  z 
(Fig.  IK!),  ill  llic  mould-boMid.     Tli(>  hook  on  the  k>ft  end  of  the 


232 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


dog-rod  catches  into  a  staple,  k  (Fig.  116),  on  the  mould-board; 
the  screw  end  passes  through  the  hole  seen  in  D,  and  is  secured 
by  the  nut.  By  this  arrangement  the  land  side  and  mould-board 
are  held  firmly  together  as  one  piece. 

The  Breast. 
A  straight  line  drawn  from  the  point  of  the  share  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  standard  measures  22|  inches.  The  ordinates  to  the 
breast  curve,  measured  along  this  line,  are,  at  4  inches  from  the 
standard,  i  of  an  inch;  at  8  inches,  ||  of  an  inch;  at  12  inches,  \f. 
of  an  inch;  at  16  inches,  \^  of  an  inch;  at  20  inches,  -^^  of  an  inch. 

The  Mould-Board, 
Fig.  114,  r.  Fig.  116,  g,  rises  regularly  from  the  base   line  and 
forms  a  continuous  curve  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  share; 
but  a  vertical  flange,  s,  descends  from  its  front  lower  edge  to  the 
sole.     The  rear  edge  of  this  flange  is  19i  inches  behind  the  point 


J'Vr/.  i/'O. 


Report  of  the  Judges.  233 

of  the  share,  measured  on  the  base  line.  The  clog-brace  D,  and 
dog-rod  E,  Fig.  115,  take  the  place  of  the  thimble-brace  formcrh^ 
used.  The  dog  D  being  more  convenient,  is  preferred.  A  § 
wrought  iron  brace  extends  from  the  top  of  the  rear  standard 
diagonally  across  to  the  rear  of  the  mould-board.  It  is  15 
inches  long,  and  hooks  at  both  ends  into  staples  which  are  cast 
on  these  plates,  and  which,  on  the  mould-board,  is  4|  inches 
below  its  upper  edge,  and  5  inches  in  front  of  its  rear  edge.  A 
series  of  straight  lines,  which  coincide  at  all  points  with  a  straight- 
edge running  from  the  front  to  the  back  part  of  the  mould- 
board.  The  iirst  of  these  extends  from  the  land  side  of  the 
point  of  the  share  to  a  point  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould- 
board,  which  is  2 1  inches  vertically  distant  from  the  plane  of  the 
sole,  and  18  inches  distant  from  the  point  forms  an  angle  with 
the  plane  of  the  sole  of  5°  02'.  Another  of  these  lines,  drawn 
from  the  point  where  the  land  side  joins  the  mould-board  on  the 
breast,  to  a  point  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  7|  inches 
vertically  distant  from  the  base  line,  forms  an  angle  of  4°  08'. 
Another  of  these  lines  runs  from  the  top  of  the  breast  to  a  point 
in  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  llf  inches  vertically  above 
the  base  line.  The  uppermost  coinciding  line  at  the  top  of  the 
mould-board  forms  an  angle  of  3°  20'.  It  will  be  seen  that  these 
lines  form  angles  with  the  plane  of  the  sole  gradually  though 
not  absolutely  regularly  diminishing  as  they  rise  vertically  on  the 
mould-board.  Another  set  of  lines  may  be  drawn  from  front  to 
rear  forming  angles  with  the  first  named  line  at  the  point  of  62°, 
and  at  the  rear  of  the  mould-board  of  85°,  the  intermediate  lines 
forming  angles  gradually  increasing  from  front  to  rear,  but,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  other  set  of  lines,  the  rate  of  increment  is  not 
entirely  regular.  If  these  lines  are  drawn  upon  the  sui-face  of 
the  mould-board  their  intersections  will  form  trapezoids;  if  the 
diagonals  are  drawn  on  any  of  these  it  will  be  found  that  a  straight- 
edge applied  to  one  of  them  will  show  a  concave  surface,  while 
at  ihe  cross  diagonal  it  will  show  a  convex  surface. 

The  mould-board  closes  over  the  land  side  at  the  breast  by  a 
lip;  it  also  has  a  flange  around  its  upper  and  lower  edge  one- 
half  an  inch  broad.  The  mould-board  is  attached  to 'the  standard 
by  means  of  the  pin  seen  in  Fig.  115,  and  marked  P,  which  enters 
a  thimble  cast  at  the  lower  end  of  the  inside  of  the  mould-board, 
ii,  Fig.  116;  it  also  rests  on  the  projecting  ear,  O,  Fig.  115,  to 
which  it  is  fastened  by  a  bolt  and  nut.     By  this"  simple  ai-range- 


234  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

meiit  the  mould-board  can  be  readily  changed  from  a  sod  to  a 
stubble  plow,  and  vice  versa.  The  dog,  D,  hooks  into  (7,  Fig. 
115,  and  into  i,  Fig.  116.  The  rod,  E,  hooks  into  h,  and  the 
nutted  end  passes  through  the  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  dog, 
which  braces  all  parts  firmly  together. 

While  we  have  been  compelled  by  the  results  of  the  trial  to 
give  a  very  decided  preference  to  the  Holbrook  plow,  we  intend 
to  bestow  a  strong  commendation  upon  its  competitor,  which  is 
in  all  respects  a  very  excellent  plow,  though  not  as  well  adapted  to 
deep  plowing  as  Holbrook's.  The  material  of  which  it  is  made 
is  the  hardest  and  least  frangible  steel  that  ever  came  under  our 
notice.  This  was  very  strikingly  exemplified,  when  a  stone  two 
feet  lonof,  eifi:hteen  inches  wide  and  three  inches  thick  was  caught 
between  the  revolving  cutter  and  the  breast  of  the  plow  and  torn 
out  from  ten  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
cutter  was  pressed  by  this  operation  fully  three  inches  to  the 
right  of  its  natural  plane,  but  when  released  it  sprang  back  to  it 
again  without  injury  to  it  or  to  any  part  of  the  plow. 

We  know  nothing  of  the  process  by  which  these  desirable 
properties  are  imparted  to  the  steel,  but  we  can  fully  testify  to 
the  excellence  of  the  article.  It  pulverizes  the  ground  remarka- 
bly well  for  a  concave  plow,  and  buries  the  weeds  and  stubble 
tolerably  well.  In  our  opinion  it  would  be  better  if  it  were 
longer  and  less  abrupt;  and  we  think  the  breadth  from  the  land 
side  to  the  angle  of  the  feather  on  the  share  is  too  great,  as  it 
does  not  leave  a  hinge  sufficiently  wide  for  the  furrow  slice  to 
turn  in.     We  give  the  following  full  description  of  it: 

Turf  and  Stubble  Plow  C  No.  3.     Collins  &  Co.,  Hartford. 
F.  F.  Smith,  Patent.     Class  IV,  Entry  No.  13. 

This  plow  is  of  cast  steel,  with  the  exception  of  the  standard, 
which  is  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  bolts  and  brace  rods,  which 
are  also  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  bridle,  which  is  of  cast  iron; 
the  beams,  handles  and  one  cross-brace  are  of  wood. 

General  Dimensions.  ^    , 

Inches- 

From  zero  to  rear  end  of  mould-board 4^ 

From  zero  to  heel  of  land  side 5 

From  zero  to  first  cross-brace 5 

From  zero  to  second  cross-brace 101 

From  zero  to  extreme  tip  of  left  handle 33 

From  zero  to  rear  edge  of  standard 85 

From  zero  to  rear  corner  of  fi-athoi- 12 


Report  of  the  Judges.  235 

Inches. 

From  zero  to  junction  of  land  side  with  share 17 

From  zero  to  point  of  share 28 

From  zero  to  extreme  front  of  beam 52 

From  zero  to  front  hole  in  the  bridle 534 

These  points  are  all  referred  to  the  base  line  by  a  plumb  line, 
and  then  measured  horizontally  backward  and  forward  from  the 
zero  line.  This  line  is  found  on  the  mould-board  at  the  point 
where  the  furrow  slice  touches  it  when  it  is  set  perj)endicularly 
on  its  edge,  or  by  finding  the  point  where  a  line  at  right  angles 
from  the  land  side  as  long  as  the  breadth  of  the  furrow  slice 
touches  the  mould-board,  and  also  above  the  sole  as  much  as  the 
furrow  is  broad. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  extreme  length  of  this 
plow  is  7  feet  2^  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  handles  to  the  front 
of  the  bridle.  And  the  whole  length  from  the  heel  of  the  land 
side  to  the  point  is  2  feet  9  inches.  The  tip  of  the  left  handle 
lies  3|  inches  to  the  left  of  the  plane  of  the  land  side. 

Vertical  Measurements. 

Inches. 

From  base  line  to  the  tip  of  the  handle 33 

From  base  line  to  the  highest  point  of  the  handle 351 

From  base  line  to  third  cross-brace  between  handles 284 

From  base  line  to  second  cross-brace  between  handles I82 

From  base  line  to  first  cross-brace  between  handles II5 

From  base  line  to  top  of  beam  at  rear  edge  of  standard 231 

From  base  line  to  top  of  beam  at  front  end 18| 

From  base  line  to  upper  hole  of  bridle 20^ 

From  base  line  to  lower  hole  of  bridle 141 

Handles. 

An  iron  strap,  one-half  an  inch  thick  and  2^  inches  wide,  is 
bolted  to  the  inner  face  of  the  land  side,  8  inches  in  a<lvance  of 
the  heel  and  3^  inches  above  the  sole.  It  rises  upward  and  back- 
ward, making  an  angle  of  48°  with  the  base  line,  and  is  continued 
15  inches  a])ove  the  bolt.  It  is  twisted  or  kneed  inward  so  as  to 
make  its  outer  or  left  plane  coincide  with  the  inner  or  right  hand 
face  of  the  left  handle,  which  is  bolted  to  it  and  is  in  contact 
with  it  for  6 i  inches.  This  handle  passes  upward  through  a 
mortise  in  the  beam,  and  after  ascending  6  inches  alcove  begins  to 
deflect  towards  the  left  from  the  plane  in  which  it  previously 
stood.  It  is  two  inches  broad  (^^  e.  on  its  sides)  and  1|  inches 
thick  {i.  e.  on  its  front  and  rear  edges).  Below  the  beam  its  form 
IS  semi-cylind7"ical,  and  the  bolts  which  hold  it  in  contact  with  tlif 


236  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

iron  strap  are  headed  with  a  clip  which  embraces  their  whole  cir- 
cumference and  correspond  with  them  in  form.  Above  the  beam 
the  sides  are  trimmed  off  on  the  edges  so  as  to  give  them  a  well 
marked  convexity. 

The  right  handle  is  bolted  by  two  bolts,  6  inches  apart,  to  the 
mould-board.  A  half  inch  wrought  iron  brace  rod,  15  inches 
above  the  bolt,  which  fastens  the  iron  strap  to  the  land  side, 
passes  between  the  handles,  and  is  1\  inches  long.  Another  iron 
brace  rod,  curved  upward  in  the  middle  and  having  a  screw  cut 
upon  both  ends,  passes  through  the  beam  and  both  handles;  each 
end  is  secured  by  two  nuts,  one  on  the  outside,  the  other  inside, 
thus  resisting  both  outward  and  inward  pressure.  It  is  10|  inches 
in  length,  and  is  11  inches  above  the  first  one  measured  on  the  left 
handle,  and  14  inches  measured  on  the  left  one.  A  third  brace  rod 
of  wood,  15  inches  above  the  last  one,  as  measured  on  the  left  han- 
dle, and  17^  inches  on  the  right  handle,  is  18  inches  long,  measured 
as  the  others  have  been  on  the  inside  of  the  handles.  One  inch 
above  this  is  a  quarter-inch  iron  rod,  which  passes  through  both 
handles,  and  is  secured  by  a  nut  on  the  left  one.  The  distance 
between  the  tips  of  the  handles  is  28  inches,  and  as  we  have 
before  stated,  the  tip  of  the  left  handle  lies  3|  inches  to  the  left 
of  the  plane  of  the  land  side,  the  tip  of  the  right  handle  must 
lie  24^  inches  to  the  right  of  that  plane.  Both  handles  are  made 
from  wood. 

Beam. 

The  beam  is  made  of  oak  wood.  Measured  along  the  top,  in 
conformity  with  the  curves,  it  is  5  feet  7^  inches  long.  Measured 
in  a  straio-ht  line,  it  is  5  feet  6  inches  Ions;, 

The  following  measurements,  made  vertically  from  the  base 
line  to  the  top  of  the  beam  at  the  points  indicated,  will  give  a 
tolerably  di-stinct  idea  of  its  curves: 

Inches. 

From  base  line  to  extreme  rear  end  of  the  beam 18 

).    From  base  line  to  the  point  where  the  front  edge  of  the  left  handle  passes 

!  through  the  beam 44 

In  advance  of  the  preceding  measurement 19  g 

From  base  line  at  1  foot  in  advance  of  first  measurement 211 

From  base  line  at  2  feet  in  advance  of  first  measurement,  which  corre- 
sponds with  the  rear  edge  of  the  standard 22>\ 

From  base  line  at  3  feet  in  advance  of  first  measurement 221 

From  base  line  at  4  feet  in  advance  of  first  measurement 20-8 

From  base  line  at  5  feet  in  advance  of  first  measurement 18s 

From  base  line  at  the  extreme  fi'out  of  the  beam I84 


Report  of  the  Judges.  237 

Similar  moasiirements  to  the  under  side  of  the  beam: 

Inches. 

At  the  heel IGi 

At  45  inches  in  advance 171 

At  1  foot  in  advance 18s 

At  2  feet  in  advance 19g 

At  3  feet  in  advance , 18A 

At  4  feet  in  advance 17;^     , 

At  5  feet  in  advance 16^ 

At  front  end  of  beam 16^ 

The  beam  projects  2  inches  behind  the  left  handle  of  the  plow. 
At  the  hinder  end  it  is  3  inches  deep  and  2|  inches  wide.  At  the 
standard  it  is  4|  inches  deep  and  2|  inches  wide.  At  the  front  it 
is  3  inches  deep  by  2^  inches  wide. 

The  Land  Side 
Is  made  by  a  single  plate  of  cast  steel,  21  inches  long,  and  5 
inches  deep,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  bevelled  otf  at 
its  upper  front  edge  to  meet  the  breast  curve  of  the  share  and 
mould-board.  At  its  rear  end  a  wear  iron  projects  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  laterally  towards  the  land,  which  extends  8^  inches 
forwards  and  then  runs  out,  the  land  side  and  share  beino;  thence- 
forward  in  one  plane.  The  wear  iron  also  extends  2  inches  diago- 
nally upward,  and  is  then  lost  in  the  plane  of  the  land  side.  At 
its  junction  with  the  share  the  plate  is  thickened  on  the  inside, 
and  a  gain  is  cut  on  the  end  outside  face,  which  extends  2  inches 
over  the  interior  face  of  the  share  at  the  point  they  are  bolted 
together. 

From  a  point  11  inches  in  front  of  the  heel  and  3  inches  above 
the  sole,  a  wrought  iron  brace,  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  wide  and 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  crosses  over  to  the  mould-board. 
It  is  bolted  to  both  through  flanges  which  turn  downward  at 
angles  corresponding  with  each  plate.  The  land  side  is  exactly 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  sole  for  six  inches  vertically. 

Share. 
A  straight  edge  laid  from  the  heel  of  the  land  side  to  the  point 
of  the  share  forms  the  base  of  a  triangle,  the  apex  of  which  is  at 
the  point  of  junction  between  the  land  side  plate  and  the  share, 
its  altitude  being  one-half  an  inch.  A  straight  edge  laid  upon 
the  sole  of  the  land  side  and  produced  is  a  qnrter  of  an  inch  vert  i- 
cally  above  the  point.  The  point  is  exactly  in  the  plane  of  the 
land  side  and  not  set  towards  the  left  as  is  usually  the  case.  It 
is  also  in  a  straight  line  with  the  sole  of  the  share.     The  ana'le 


238  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

of  the  feather  is  12  inches,  measured  at  right  angles  with  the 
exterior  face  of  the  land  side.  There  is  no  marked  line  of 
separation  between  the  point  and  the  rest  of  the  share;  its  breadth 
is  one-half  an  inch.  The  edge  of  the  feather  from  the  point  to 
the  angle  is  regularly  concave  on  the  sole.  The  length  of  the 
chord  connecting  the  point  Avith  the  angle  is  19|  inches,  and  the 
longest  ordinate  to  the  curve  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  The 
distance  of  the  angle  from  the  bottom  of  the  mould-board  is  5|^ 
inches;  it  is  brought  to  a  cutting  edo;e  alono^  the  sole  for  its  entire 
length,  and  does  not  vary  anywhere  from  the  plane  of  the  sole. 
The  vertical  height  of  the  breast  at  the  junction  of  the  share  and 
land  side  is  4  inches,  and  at  the  standard  10  inches.  The  length 
of  the  share  on  the  land  side  is  10|  inches.  The  upper  edge  of 
the  share  coincides  with  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould-board  in  a 
straight  line.  An  iron  plate  three  inches  wide  is  applied  along 
the  line  of  junction  on  the  inner  face  and  unites  the  two  by 
means  of  two  bolts  passing  through  the  phxte  and  the  upper  edge 
of  the  land  side,  and  two  through  the  lower  edge  of  the  mould- 
board. 

The  Standard 

Is  of  wrought  iron,  2|  inches  wide  and  'three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick;  it  is  straight  until  it  reaches  the  breast  of  the  plow;  it 
then  curves  forward  to  correspond  with  it.  It  twists  inward 
Avhen  it  meets  the  land  side  and  has  a  gain  cut  in  the  lower  end 
to  receive  the  land  side  plate  which  is  bolted  to  it;  it  terminates 
above  in  a  plate  six  inches  long  and  three  inches  wide,  having 
transverse  slots  cut  at  each  end,  through  which  bolts  pass  upward 
through  the  beam  secured  by  nuts  upon  its  upper  surface.  By 
this  arrangement  the  angle  made  by  the  beam  and  the  plane  of 
the  land  side  may  be  varied  at  pleasure.  The  land  side  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  sole  for  six  inches;  from  thence  upward  the 
standard  inclines  to  the  furrow  side;  at  12  inches  above  the 
sole  it  deflects  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  A  line  drawn  from 
the  point  to  the  top  of  the  breast  where  it  meets  the  standard  is 
19i  inches,  and  the  longest  ordinate  to  the  curve  of  the  breast  is 
1|  inches. 

The   Mould-Board 

Is  of  cast  steel,  which  is  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  It  has 
straight  transverse  lines,  but  its  vertical  lines  are  concave.     We 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


239 


did  not  perceive  that  the  twist  conformed  to  any  matheniaticul 
principle,  but  it  worked  very  well  in  practice. 

Class  V — Sod  and  Subsoil  Plows. 

The  only  entry  in  this  class  was  by  F.  F,  Holbrook,  of  Boston, 
and  consisted  of  the  plow  used  in  Class  IV,  with  a  skim  plow 
attached  to  the  beam  in  front,  as  seen  in  Fig.  117.  Entry  No.  20. 
Weight,  150  lbs.     Price,  $27. 


A  full  description  of  the  stubble  plow  will  be  found  in  Class  IV. 
The  sod  and  subsoil  plow  is  No.  69,  with  a  stubble  mould-board  and 
the  skim  plow  attached.  It  works  from  8  to  14  inches  deep,  by 
10  to  14  inches  wide,  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  plowman. 

In  our  trials  at  Utica,  on  ground  as  adverse  to  its  good  perform- 
ance as  could  well  be  imagined,  it  worked  11  inches  deep  and  11 
inches  wide  for  the  first  two  furrows,  and  11  inches  deep  and  12 
inches  wide  for  the  second  two  furrows. 

The  following  table  shows  the  force  which  was  consumed: 


FUEROWS. 

Distance  in 
yards. 

Half  power  in 
pound  yards. 

First 

153 
151 
153 
152^ 

45,000 
43,500 
57,500 
55,600 

Second 

Third • 

Fourth 

The  annexed  table  g-ives  actual  draught  reduced  from  the  above 
table,  the  draught  per  cubic  foot,  and  the  averages. 


240 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


SIZE  OF  FURROW. 

DRAUGHT. 

AVERAGES. 

Width  in 
inches. 

Depth  in 
inches. 

Actual. 

Per  cubic  foot 
of  earth. 

Actual. 

Per  cubic 
foot. 

11 
11 
12 
12 

11 
11 
11 
11 

588 
576 
752 
730 

700 
G86 
820 
795 

I      582 
\      741 

693 
807 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  average  cliifereiice  between  the  two 
first  and  two  last,  amounting  to  159  pounds,  is  altogether  too 
great  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  very  slight  increase  of  one  inch 
in  the  width  of  the  furrow,  and  was  obviously  due  to  the  hetero- 
geneous character  of  the  soil,  which  varied  very  greatly  in  tena- 
city and  density  in  the  space  of  a  few  feet. 

In  order  to  determine  this  matter  more  fully,  we  made  experi- 
ments with  this  plough  at  various  depths,  the  results  of  which 
are  recorded  in  the  following  tables: 

Holhrooh^s  Bod  and  Buhsoil. 


Width  of  furrow,  12  inches. 


Depth  in 
inches. 


Distance  in 
yards. 


Half  power  in 
pound  yards. 


First  furrow . . 
Second  furrow 
Third  furrow  . 


101 
124 


154 
146 
149 


50,800 
55,000 
59,700 


In  the  following  table  these  numbers  are  reduced  to  actual  draft 
and  draft  per  cubic  foot  in  pound  yards: 


DEPTH  OF  FURROW 


Actual 
draught. 


Draught  per 
cubic  foot. 


8 I  inches 
10 5  inches 
12i  inches 


660 
753 
801 


931 

861 

785 


This  shows  the  heterogeneous  character  of  the  soil  in  a  very 
striking  manner.  In  the  first  experiment  121  square  inches  of 
furrow  slice  were  turned  over,  with  a  force  of  582  yard  pounds; 
in  the  second  experiment  660  yard  pounds  were  required  to  turn 
over  a  furrow  slice  of  102  square  inches. 

In  the  first  experiment,  741  jnvd  pounds  were  required  to  turn 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


241 


132  square  inches;  in  the  second,  it  required  75o  yard  pounds  to 
turn  a  slice  of  121)  square  inches. 

The  work  performed  by  this  plow  was  entirely  satisfactory. 
The  furrow  channel  was  perfectly  cleared;  the  earth  was  tho- 
rouo;hly  pulverized;  the  grass,  weeds  and  stubbles  were  entirely 
buried,  so  that  they  could  not  possibly  spring  up  again;  the  plow 
ran  very  truly,  so  that  a  boy  could  hold  it,  and,  as  will  be  seen 
on  inspecting  the  table,  it  consumed  very  little  power  in  propor- 
tion to  the  work  performed.  The  workmanship  throughout  was 
excellent  and  conscientious,  and  the  material  was  as  good  as  wood 
and  cast  iron  could  make  them. 

We  have  no  hesitation  in  awarding  a  gold  medal  to  this  plow. 

As  heretofore  remarked,  plow  No.  69  has  a  stubble  mould- 
board,  for  stubble  plowing,  as  in  Class  IV;  a  skim  plow,  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  stubble  mould-board,  for  sod  and  sub- 
soil plowing,  as  in  Class  V;  and  a  sod  mould-board,  for  sod  plow- 
ing, as  represented  in  Fig.  118, — turning  either  lap  or  flat  furrows 
by  a  change  of  cutter,  and  working  from  seven  to  ten  inches  deep. 


Class  VI — Subsoil  Plow  in  connection  with  an  Ordinary  Plow. 

The  only  entry  in  this  class  was  by  R.  J.  Wheatly,  Du  Quoin, 
Illinois. 

Entry  No.  6.     Weight  of  attachment,  20  lbs.     Price,  $10. 

This  is  intended  to  ])e  affixed  to  any  plow,  and  is  not  intended 
for  any  one  in  particular. 

An  ordinary  clevis  is  afiixed  to  the  beam  of  the  plow  about  one 
inch  in  advance  of  the  standard.  From  the  centre  of  the  right 
side  of  the  clevis  a  shaft  extends  3|  inches  to  the  right.  A  plate  of 
iron  is  bolted  to  the  rear  end  of  the  beam,  near  the  handles,  4  inches 

16 


242  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

long  and  1\  inches  Avide.  A  vertical  projection  descends  from 
it  2  inches  long.  From  this  a  horizontal  projection  extends  2^ 
inches;  from  the  end  of  this  a  vertical  plate  descends  8  inches,  and 
is  perforated  with  live  holes,  1  inch  apart  and  ^  inch  in  diameter. 
A  strong  clamp  on  the  right  side  of  the  standard  is  bolted  to 
these  holes,  according  to  the  desired  depth  of  subsoiling.  The 
stem  hinges  on  the  first  mentioned  shaft  on  the  clevis,  which  is 
16  inches  long  and  1  inch  by  |  inch.  It  passes  backward,  and  is 
fastened  by  the  clamp;  it  then  bifurcates  into  two  curved  arms, 
11  inches  long  and  8  inches  apart  at  the  roar  extremity.  A  knife 
shaped  like  the  letter  U,  but  brought  to  a  lancet-shaped  point 
beneath,  which  is  13  inches  below  the  bifurcated  arms,  and  3 
inches  wide,  is  fastened  to  the  arms  by  two  bolts.  The  upper 
arms  of  the  knife  are  curved  over  towards  the  plow,  having  a 
slot  in  their  extremities  so  as  to  change  the  angle  at  which  it 
enters  the  ground  at  pleasure.  The  lower  part  of  the  knife  is 
not  in  the  same  plane  on  both  sides,  the  hinder  part  being  an  inch 
and  three-quarters  higher  than  the  front  edge;  the  soil  dug  up  by 
the  front  edge  is  therefore  raised  vertically  1|  inches,  and  falls 
the  same  distance  back  into  the  furrow  channel  from  the  back 
edge,  which  pulverizes  it  very  well. 

The  plow  was  first  tried  alone,  without  the  attachment  for 
subsoiling,  with  the  following  result: 

Furrow,  7  inches  deep  and  8  inches  wide. 

]32  yards — Half  power  in  pound  yards,  34,600  pounds;  actual 
power  in  yard  pounds,  524  pounds. 

After  the  attachment  was  applied,  the  furrow  was  ten  inches 
deep,  or  three  inches  lower  than  before,  which  was  therefore  the 
amount  of  subsoiling  actually  performed.  The  power  required  to 
accomplish  this  work,  viz.,  a  furrow  slice  7  inches  deep  and  8 
inches  wide,  turned  over,  and  3  inches  deep  and  8  inches  wide, 
pulverized  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  was  74  yards.  34,400 
pounds  half  power  in  pound  yards;  actual  power  in  pound  yards, 
876. 

The  power  required,  therefore,  to  subsoil  three  inches  deep 
was  352  pounds,  or  117  pounds  for  each  inch  that  was  subsoiled. 

Mr.  Holbrook's  Sod  and  Subsoil,  going  in  one  inch  deeper  and 
taking  a  furrow  three  inches  broader,  absorbed  194  pounds  less 
of  power  than  did  this  of  Mr.  Wheatley's. 

We  were  all  very  much  pleased  with  the  appearance  of  the 
invention  and  we  confidently  expected  that  a  trial  would  demon- 


Effort  of  the  Judges.  243 

stmtc  its  usefulness;  but  in  the  fiice  of  the  facts  disclosed  by  the 
trial  we  were  reluctantly  compelled  to  withhold  a  testimonial  of 
the  approval  of  the  Society. 

Class  VII — A  Ditching  Plow  for  Opening  Drains. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  list  of  entries  that  A.  P.  Routt,  of  Som- 
erset, Va.,  was  the  only  competitor,  while  the  premium  is  awarded 
to  N.  Hawks,  of  Maine.  Mr.  Routt  has  addressed  a  protest  to  the 
board  of  judges,  and  it  is  acknowledged  that  the  award  was  an 
improper  one. 

The  blame  of  this  transaction  rests  wholly  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  chairman  of  the  board  of  judges,  whose  duty  it  was  to  see 
that  every  implement  competing  for  a  prize  was  properly  entered 
in  the  class  for  which  it  was  competing.  On  account  of  sickness 
in  Mr.  Routt's  family  his  plow  was  tried  out  of  its  regular  order 
so  that  he  might  go  home.  Mr.  Hawk's  plow  was  tried  in  the 
regular  order,  and  Mr.  Routt  was  therefore  not  present  to  chal- 
lenjje  his  rio;ht  to  do  so.  The  chairman  havino-  seen  his  name  on 
the  entry  list  supposed  it  was  quite  right,  and  permitted  him  to 
make  the  trial,  without  actually  looking,  as  he  ought  to  have 
done,  to  see  whether  this  was  the  class  for  which  he  had  entered. 
The  mistake  was  not  discovered  until  the  premium  was  awarded, 
and  after  this  it  was  of  course  impossible  to  withdraw  it. 

The  ditcher  consists  of  a  double  mould-board  plow,  which  makes 
the  ditch,  and  is  followed  by  a  roller  formed  of  two  cones  united 
by  their  bases,  which  are  two  feet  in  diameter,  the  axis  being  13 
feet  long.  Two  wrought  iron  arms  proceeding  from  the  rear  of 
the  plow  frame  and  extending  laterally  and  backward  embrace 
each  end  of  the  axis,  and  draws  the  cones  after  the  plow  which 
pack  and  smooth  the  side  of  the  ditch.  After  seeing  it  work,  we 
did  not  think  that  it  was  a  desirable  implement  for  the  farmer, 
and  we  should  not,  therefore,  have  awarded  a  premium  to  it  under 
any  circumstances. 

The  ditching  plow  of  Mr.  Hawks  is  one  part  of  a  machine 
which  may  be  employed  for  various  purposes.  It  can  be  used  as 
a  ditching  plow,  a  cultivator,  as  a  seed  planter  and  a  potato 
digger.  Weight  of  the  whole  combined  machine  180  pounds. 
Price,  $50.  We  took  a  memorandum  ot  the  weight  and  price  of 
the  ditching  plow  alone,  but  it  is  now  obliterated,  and  therefore 
we  are  unable  to  give  it. 

Considered  as  a  seed  planter,  it  may  be  described  as  a  double 


244  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

moiild-])oard  plow  cast  in  two  pieces,  viz.:  the  point  and  shares, 
and  the  win<>;s  or  mould-boards.  The  beam  is  of  oak,  and  is  45 
inches  long.  The  wheel,  which  is  attached  in  the  same  way  as 
Gov.  Holbrook's,  which  we  have  already  described,  is  7  inches  in 
diameter  and  2  inches  broad.  The  clevis  is  the  same  also  as  Gov. 
Holbrook's.  A  pair  of  cast  iron  arms  rise  from  the  upper  edge 
of  the  mould-boards  on  each  side,  9  inches  to  the  rear  of  the 
breast,  in  a  curved  direction  towards  beam  and  bolt,  through  its 
heel.  These  arms  descend  six  inches,  and  are  flanged  below.  From 
these  flanges  a  box  is  supported  in  which  are  inserted  the  gudgeons 
of  the  driving  wheel,  which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure. 
The  driving  wheel  is  11  inches  in  diameter  and  1  inch  wide. 
Two  pins  are  inserted  on  each  side  of  the  driving  wheel,  which 
strike  on  cones  which  communicate  a  vibratory  motion  to  the 
slides,  which  open  the  valves  for  the  deposit  of  the  seed.  By 
increasing  the  pins,  the  quickness  of  the  viljrations  and  conse- 
quently the  amount  of  seed  sown  is  increased  ;  by  diminishing 
the  numl)er  of  pins,  the  quantity  sown  can  be  diminished.  A 
pair  of  hinged  ears,  8  inches  above  the  sole  of  the  mould-boards, 
project  in  the  rear  of  the  handles,  from  which  brace-rods  (half  an 
inch  in  diameter)  extend  backwards  12  inches  to  the  covering 
irons.  Another  pair  of  brace-rods  extend  from  the  first  pair,  at 
the  front  of  the  covering  irons,  upwards  to  the  handles.  Eighteen 
inches  above  the  sole  of  the  mould-board  one  end  has  a  ring 
which  embraces  the  first  pair  of  braces,  and  the  other  is  bolted 
to  the  handles.  The  covering  irons  are  1  inch  apart  behind  and 
9  inches  apart  in  front,  sloping  to  the  right  and  left  as  they 
descend  to  the  ground.  They  are  14  inches  long,  and  are  curved 
upward  and  backward  from  below.  A  rib  is  cast  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  covers,  10  inches  high  in  front  and  2  inches  high 
behind,  which  flare  outward.  A  pair  of  ears  are  cast  about  the 
middle  of  the  covers,  to  which  a  cross-rod  is  bolted,  from  the 
centre  of  which  a  standard  rises,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  cross- 
bar; from  the  ends  braces  extend  to  the  handles;  on  each  side  a 
thumb-screw,  on  the  top  of  the  standard,  regulates  the  depth  of 
the  hill.  A  pair  of  eyes,  1  inch  in  diameter  and  ten  inches  apart, 
are  screwed  into  the  top  of  the  beam  ;  between  these  a  wooden 
roller  is  inserted,  from  the  centre  of  which  a  wooden  bar  runs 
laterally.  A  marker  is  placed  at  the  end  of  this  bar,  which  can 
be  moved  backward  and  forward,  and  secured  by  a  thumb-screw 
at  any  point,  so   as  to  make  the   marks   for  the  furrow  at  any 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


245 


Jf'fff.  ff9. 
by  hinging  a  bar  from  the    rear    end 


required  distance.  A  drawer  vibrates  at  each  motion  of  the  slide, 
which  regulates  the  egress  of  the  seed.  Two  projecting  pins 
in  the  downward  channel  play  up  and  down  and  prevent  clogging. 

~j^  J  ^^^^MBmm^^y'-^-'^^  Ine  description  above 
'  ^/-<«^^  given,  in  connection  with 
the  drawing,  Fig.  119,  will, 
we  trust,  give  a  tolerable 
idea  of  the  implement  when 
adjusted  for  planting  seed. 
When  the  boxes  and 
planting  machinery  are  de- 
tached it  is  converted  into 
a  horse  hoe  or  cultivator, 
of  each  mould-board  to 
which  cultivator  teeth  are  attached;  these  arms  are  expansible 
to  any  required  width  b}'  means  of  a  pair  of  wrought  iron  arcs, 
one  of  M^hich  is  attached  to  the  middle  of  each  bar;  they  are  per- 
forated with  holes,  and  can  therefore  be  used  to  set  the  arms  at 
any  angle  by  thrusting  a  pin  through  these  holes. 

Fig;.  120  shows  the  machine  when  used  as  a  cultivator.  When 
used  as  a  ditcher,  the  cov- 
erers  seen  behind  in  Fig. 
119  are  reversed  and  hinged 
to  the  rear  of  the  mould- 
boards  by  means  of  slots  in 
the  sides  and  screw  bolts 
they  may  be  raised  higher 
as  the  ditch  deepens.  It 
really  did  excellent  work 
as  a  ditcher,  and  by  passing  backward  and  forward  a  few  times  a 
single  horse  would  cut  out  a  very  neat  ditch  with  very  little 
labor  and  great  neatness  of  execution.  We  deemed  its  work 
much  better  than  Routt's  in  all  respects. 


JSTo.  4, 


Fig.  720. 


Class  VIII — A  Machine  for  Excavating  Ditches  for  Under- 
draining. 

There  was  only  a  single  entry  in  this  class,  which  was  made  bj'- 
E.  Heath,. of  Fowlerville,  N.  Y. 

We  have  mislaid  our  notes  of  the  weight  and  price  of  this 
machine,  or  we  neglected  to  procure  them.  Some  idea  of  the 
machine    will    l)c   ol)tained    1)V   an   examination    of  the    annexed 


246  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

Fig.  121.  It  runs  upon  a  light  wooden  railroad,  or  rather 
trajn,  road;  as  soon  as  it  has  passed  over  one  pair  of  rails  they 
are  taken  up  by  an  attendant  and  replaced  in  front  of  the  machine. 
What  is  called  the  shovel  is  more  like  a  chisel  which  enters  the 
ground  diagonally.  It  is  moved  forward  by  means  of  a  chain 
which  is  anchored  to  a  stake  at  some  distance  ahead,  and  the 
other  end  is  slowly  wound  round  a  pulley  which  revolves  on  the 
machine.  The  shovel  runs  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  at 
each  plunge,  and  raises  the  earth  to  the  surface,  where  it  is 
caught  by  the  scrapers,  by  which  it  is  removed  about  two  feet 
from  the  sides  of  the  ditch.  The  power  required  to  operate  the 
machine  is  two  horses,  a  driver,  and  a  man  to  remove  the  rails, 
or  an  expert  man  may  do  both.  It  will  cut  a  tile  drain  at  the  rate 
of  from  four  to  six  rods  an  hour  in  ordinary  ground.  It  cut  a 
ditch  in  our  presence,  in  a  very  adhesive  clay  soil,  two  feet  deep, 
taking  out  six  lineal  inches  at  every  revolution  of  the  sweep; 
while  doing  this  it  was  worked  with  only  one  horse  and  one 
man.  It  appears  complicated  on  looking  at  the  figure;  but  it  is 
in  reality  very  simple.  There  is  not  a  single  geared  wheel  used 
in  its  construction;  it  can  all  be  made  by  any  blacksmith  or  car- 
penter, and  if  anything  breaks  it  can  be  repaired  in  any  village 
in  the  country.  There  are  only  100  pounds  of  castings  used 
about  the  whole  machine,  and  any  one  that  is  competent  to  run  a 
mowing  machine  or  a  threshing  machine  will  have  no  difficulty 
in  operating  this  one. 

We  were  unanimously  of  the  opinion  that  this  machine  is  very 
far  in  advance  of  any  contrivance  for  the  excavation  of  ditches 
that  we  have  ever  seen,  and  that  it  is  a  practical,  economical  and 
useful  implement  which  is  greatly  demanded  at  the  present  time. 
We  do  not  doubt  that  its  proprietors  will  be  enabled  to  simplify 
and  improve  its  details,  and  to  strengthen  some  of  its  parts;  but 
in  our  judgment  the  principle  is  a  good  one,  and  will  meet  the 
approbation  of  the  increasing  number  who  desire  to  increase  the 
products  of  their  farms  by  luiderdraining.  We  therefore  award 
to  it  a  gold  medal. 

Class  IX — A  Steel  Plow  for  Alluvial  and  Unctuous  Lands. 

The  only  plow  entered  in  this  class  was  that  of  Collins  &  Co., 
of  New  York. 

Plow  C,  No.  3.    Entry  No.  4.    Weight,  yO  pounds.    Price,  $25. 
There  was  no  land  in  the  vicinity  of  Utica  which  was  adapted 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


247 


248 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


for  an  actual  trial  of  this  plow  in  the  kind  of  land  for  which  it 
was  specially  intended;  but  from  the  trials  which  we  made  in 
adhesive  soils,  from  a  study  of  its  shape  and  a  test  of  the  material 
of  which  it  was  composed,  we  had  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  of 
its  admirable  adaptation  to  work  in  this  kind  of  soil  with  entire 
success,  and  therefore  awarded  to  it  a  gold  medal. 

Class  X — A  Swing  or  Sideiiill  Plow. 

Two  entries  were  made  in  this  class,  viz.:  F.  F,  Holbrook,  No. 
6,  Sivivel  Plow;  weight,  136  pounds;  price,  $20.  Lyman  D. 
Burch,  Sherburne;  weight,  110  pounds;  price,  $15. 

The  plow  made  by  Mr.  Holbrook  is  laid  out  by  an  exceedingly 
ingenious  process,  with  which  we  were  made  fully  acquainted,  but 
which  we  cannot  make  public,  as  it  is  not  patented.  We  exceed- 
ingly regret  the  necessity  for  this  enforced  reticence,  as  the  dia- 
grams given  in  full  would  elucidate  very  clearly  some  important 
points  in  the  general  theory  of  the  plow,  and  in  the  special  theory 
of  swivel  plows,  which  we  think  are  at  present  very  ill  under- 
stood by  the  users  of  plows.  A  very  good  idea  of  Mr.  Holbrook'y 
plow  will  be  obtained  by  an  examination  of  the  annexed  Fig.  122. 


It,  like  all  other  swivel  plows,  consists  of  a  half  of  two  mould- 
boards  combined  in  one;  but,  unlike  others,  it  is  so  combined  as 
that  the  one-half  shall  help  the  other  all  the  way  from  the  zero 
line  forwards,  so  that  a  full  sized  furrow  slice  may  be  properly 
turned.  It  worked  well  in  all  respects,  was  very  strong,  and  was 
thoroughly  well  made  in  all  its  parts.  It  pulverized  the  ground 
very  thoroughly,   and   l)nned   the   weeds  very  well.     Its   chief 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


249 


characteristic  was  its  pvilverizing  power,  and  the  soft,  velvety  feel 
of  the  furrows  under  the  foot  which  had  been  plowed  with  it. 

Burch's  plow  was  a  very  peculiar  one,  and  was  quite  novel  in 
its  construction.  The  leading  ideas  sought  to  be  embodied  in  it 
are  lightness,  strength  and  cheapness.  We  have  no  drawing  of 
this  plow,  but  will  try  to  describe  it  as  well  as  we  are  able.  The 
beam  is  of  cast  iron,  strengthened  by  a  frame  work  of  wrought 
iron  rods.  A  hook  cast  on  the  rear  end  of  the  beam  holds  a  brace. 
An  iron  bar,  six  inches  in  advance  of  the  hook,  projects  laterally 
on  each  side  of  the  beam,  another  bar  of  the  same  size  is  placed 
on  the  front  end  of  the  beam.  One-half  inch  rods  are  stretched 
between  these  cross-bars,  parallel  to  the  beam;  are  carried  round 
through  the  front  bar,  and  connect  in  the  middle  \\  inches  from 
the  front  bar.  At  either  end  l|-inch  hooks  are  inserted,  which 
hold  the  head  block  to  which  the  clevis  is  attached.  One  foot  in 
advance  of  the  first  mentioned  hook  is  a  horn.  Nineteen  inches 
in  advance  is  a  pair  of  straps  curving  laterally  outward,  down- 
ward and  backward.  The  coulter  perforated  through  the  shank 
is  held  by  this  rod  passing  the  ends  of  these  straps.  The  coulter 
can  be  shifted  laterally  on  this  rod,  and  the  upper  end  catches  in 
the  horn  on  either  side  of  the  beam.  The  coulter  is  spatula-shaped, 
nine  inches  long  and  three  inches  broad,  sharpened  on  both  sides. 
We  give  a  figure  of  share: 


J^/cf.  f23. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  share  has  on  its  under  side  a  brace  or 
strengthener  of  the  point  which  is  cast  Avith  it.  It  extends  through 
a  slot  or  cavity  of  the  mould-board,  back  along  the  two  wings  or 
prongs  of  the  point,  its  object  being  to  give  strength  to  the  point 
and  allow  of  its  l)cing  made  of  hard  iron,  which  makes  it  much 


250 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


more  durable.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  mould-board,  which 
is  of  uo  regular  figure.  It  approximates  in  its  general  outline  to 
a  cone,  but  has  been  pared  away  at  different  points  to  suit  the 
views  of  the  maker,  and  to  adapt  it  to  what  he  conceives  to  be 
the  wants  of  the  farmer. 

The  distance  across,  from  the  land  side  to  the  point  of  the 
feather,  is  10|  inches.  The  length  from  the  point  of  the  plow  to 
the  point  of  the  feather  is  14  inches.  Length  of  the  land  side, 
23  i  inches.     From  the  point  to  the  standard  is  15  inches. 

It  worked  very  easily,  and  was  very  strongly  made,  and  was  of 
durable  materials.  Its  great  defect  was  a  want  of  pulverizing 
power;  the  earth  was  hard  after  being  plowed. 

The  judges  decided  as  follows  between  these  two  plows: 

First.  Pulverizing  power:    Very  greatly  in  favor  of  Holbrook's. 

Second.  Non-liability  to  choke  in  stubble:  Equal  in  this  respect. 

Third.  Lightness  of  draft. 


PLOWS. 

FURROW. 

DRAUGHT. 

AVERAGES. 

Width, 
inches. 

Depth, 
inches . 

Actual. 

Per  cubic  foot 
of  earth. 

Actual. 

Per  cubic  foot 
of  earth. 

Holbrook's  Swivel 
Burch's  Swivel... 

12 
12 
12 
12 

7 
7 
7 
7 

618 
593 
507 
514 

1,059 

1,015 

869 

881 

^605 
UlO 

1,037 

875 

At  a  subsequent  trial  of  their  draft,  side  by  side,  in  soil  as 
nearly  alike  as  possible,  Holbrook's  average  draft  was  502  pound 
yards.  Burch's  average  draft  was  432  pounds.  In  the  first  case, 
Buch's  was  lightest  by  95  pounds,  or  15.7  per  cent.  In  the  second 
case  he  was  lighter  by  70  pounds,  or  13.9  per  cent.  The  merit  of 
lightness  of  draft  was  therefore  awarded  to  Burch. 

Fourth — Ease  of  holding:     Decided  in  favor  of  Burch. 

Fifth — Dura'bility:     Both  equal  in  this  respect. 

Sixth — Cheapness:     In  favor  of  Burch. 

Seventh — Excellence  of  mechanical  work:  In  favor  of  Hol- 
brook. 

Eighth — Excellence  of  material:     Both  equal  in  this  respect. 

Ninth — Thorough  inversion  and  burial  of  weeds:     Holbrook. 

Tenth — Even  distribution  of  wear:     Holbrook,  slightly. 

^^ewn//<'— Regularity  or  truoncss  of  turning:     Holbrook. 


Report  of  the  Judges.  251 

It  will  be  seen  that  five  of  these  points  were  decided  m  favor 
of  Holbrook,  three  in  favor  of  Burch,  and  in  three  points  they 
were  judged  to  be  equal. 

On  this  state  of  facts  the  question  was  discussed  which  was 
entitled  to  the  medal,  and  the  question  finally  turned  on  the  com- 
parative merits  of  easy  draft  and  thorough  pulverization.  One 
portion  of  the  judges  held  that  if  Holbrook  consumed  more  power 
he  did  the  most  work;  that  is,  he  did  that  which  it  was  the  object 
of  plowing  to  accomplish,  viz.,  thorough  pulverization,  while 
Burch  did  not.  Others  contended  that  the  orreater  ease  of  draught 
of  Burch's  plow  entitled  him  to  the  premium.  On  a  division  it 
was  found  that  four  of  the  judges  were  in  favor  of  awarding  the 
premium  to  Holbrook  and  four  to  Burch.  After  a  full  reconsid- 
eration the  vote  remained  the  same,  and  therefore  no  premium 
can  be  given  in  this  class. 

In  point  of  cheapness  Mr.  Burch's  plow  was  very  remarkable. 
The  following  statement  shows  the  cost  of  each  part: 

Plow  beam 37  pounds.     Casting,  6  cents $2  22 

Handle  yoke 5  "                 "         6     "      30 

Crotch 4  "                "        6     "      24 

Roller 5  "                 "         G     "      30 

Coulter  guide 2  "                 "         6     "      12 

Mould-board 19  "                "        5     "      95 

Shoe 7  "                "        5     "      35 

Point 6  "                "        5     "      30 

Wheel  iron 5  "       30 


Vhole  weight 90       "       $5  08 

The  whole  cost  of  the  plow  complete $10  00 

HARROWS. 

Only  one  class  of  harrows  was  made  in  the  programme  of  the 
Society,  and  only  two  were  entered  for  competition,  viz.: 

J.  E.  Morgan,  Deerfield,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y.  Weight,  200 
pounds.     Price,  $30. 

The  extreme  width  of  the  harrow  is  7  feet  4  inches.  Its 
extreme  lenoth  is  5  feet  3  inches.  It  has  48  teeth  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  square  and  5^  inches  long  below  the  lower  surface  of 
the  frame,  which  are  steel  pointed;  a  bolt  passes  through  the 
frame  behind  each  tooth  to  prevent  splitting.  It  is  made  in  two 
separate  pieces,  rectangular  in  form;  each  of  the  pieces  has  two 
huge  bolts  passing  through  all  its  bars,  secured  by  a  nut  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  outer  liar;  these  huge  bolts  are  furnished  witli 


252 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


an  elongated  eye,  C  D  E  F,  the  axis  of  which  forms  an  angle  of 
20*^  with  the  vertical  line,  the  upper  end  of  the  eye  being  directed 
to  the  opposite  harrow;  these  eyes  are  connected  by  a  three- 
quarter  inch  iron  rod,  A  B,  running  through  them.  By  this 
arrano-ement  a  backward  and  forward  motion  to  the  extent  of 
nine  inches,  and  an  upward  and  downward  motion  to  the  extent 
of  six  inches  is  allowed  to  each  side  of  the  harrow,  which  adapts 
them  admirably  to  work  in  rough  and  uneven  ground.  The 
draught  is  taken  by  rods  hooking  over  a  bar  of  iron  between  the 
two  inner  beams  two  feet  long,  vibrating  on  an  iron  arc  of  a 
circle  having  a  chord  of  32  inches.  These  rods  run  back  to  hinge 
on  the  third  tooth  of  the  harrow.  The  evener  is  attached  by  a  link 
to  one  end,  and  by  a  chain  to  the  other  18  inches  long.  The  chord 
of  the  right  arc  is  25  inches.  The  frame  of  the  harrow  is  made 
of  white  oak.  The  wooden  bars  are  2|  inches  square  and  8i 
inches  apart.  The  tracks  of  the  teeth  are  4  inches  apart.  It  is 
drawn  diagonally. 


The  draft  of  this  harrow  over  ground  which  had  been  previ- 
ously harrowed  was  314  pounds;  over  ground  which  had  not 
been  previously  harrowed,  371  pounds. 

The  harrow  is  made  in  the  best  possible  manner,  the  mate- 
rials are  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  workmanship  is  most  thor- 
ough and  conscientious  throughout.  It  will  be  seen  from  the 
description  given  above  that  it  has  a  wide  range  of  self-adjust- 
ment and  self-adaptation,  and  is  easily  kept  clear  of  weeds  and 
other  accumulations.     The  teeth  track  vcrv  well,  no  one  tooth  in 


Report  of  the  Judges.  253 

ordinary  circumstances  following  in  the  track  of  the  other.  It  is 
a  most  excellent  instrument  in  all  respects,  and  avb  were  unani- 
mously of  the  opinion  that  it  deserved  the  gold  medal. 

The  other  harrow  was  entered  by  F.  Nishwitz.  Weight.  250 
pounds.     Price,  $40. 

It  is  exceedingly  ingenious  in  its  construction;  and  if  not 
entirely  unique,  we  have  never  met  with  any  similar  one,  nor 
have  VfQ.  met  with  any  description  of  anything  resembling  it. 

It  consists  of  two  expansable  arms,  hinged  in  front  and  con- 
tiguous to  each  other.  They  are  expanded  behind  to  any  desired 
width  by  circular  arras  springing  laterally  and  inwardly  from  the 
main  arms  at  a  point  2|  feet  behind  the  angular  point.  These 
pass  one  above  the  other,  and  are  secured  at  any  desired  expan- 
sion by  a  pin  thrust  through  them  both.  The  main  frame  is  of 
oak,  8  inches  wide  and  2  inches  thick.  It  runs  on  wheels  20 
inches  in  diameter  and  2i  inches  wide,  which  are  placed  on  a 
crank  axle,  the  arms  of  which  are  5|  inches  long,  and  which  regu- 
late the  depth. 

The  cutting  action  of  this  implement  is  by  a  series  of  rolling 
plates  attached  to  each  arm  of  the  harrow.  These  plates  are  in 
the  form  of  hollow  segments  of  a  sphere;  the  length  of  the  chord 
is  11  inches,  and  the  versed  side  |  inch.  They  are  made  of  gray 
iron  chilled  on  the  edge,  which  is  quite  sharp;  the  convex  side  is 
turned  outward.  Seven  of  these  concave  plates  are  attached  to 
one  of  the  expanding  arms,  and  six  to  the  other.  There  is  a 
socket  attached  to  the  center  of  each  plate,  upon  which  it  rotates. 
A  hollow  cone,  the  opening  at  the  base  being  2|  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  having  a  flange  which  is  f  inch  wide,  is  placed  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  expanding  arms;  an  eye-bolt  passes  through  the 
cone,  which  is  fastened  by  a  nut  on  the  upper  side  of  the  arms; 
the  eye  fits  into  shoulders  cut  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cone.  A 
steel  pin  from  the  eye  projects  inward,  upon  which  the  socket 
of  the  plates  run;  on  the  outside  a  scraper  is  attached  to  the 
under  side  of  the  oak  arms,  which  takes  otf  the  adhering  earth 
from  the  convex  surface,  and  also  prevents  the  plates  from  run- 
ning off  the  steel  pins  upon  which  they  rotate.  They  can  be 
moved  on  a  slot  \\  inches  backward  and  forward.  The  plane  of 
rotation  of  the  plates  make  an  angle  of  15  degrees  with  the  line 
of  the  harrow's  motion. 

The  effect  of  this  machine  as  a  pulverizer  was  most  astonishing. 
It  worked  most  effectually  diagonally  across  the  fui'rows,  going 


254  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

across  in  this  way  and  returning  at  a  reverse  angle,  so  as  to  cut 
the  furrow  diamond  wise,  reduced  it  to  powder  like  flour.  It 
also  worked  most  admirably  in  scarifying  sod.  It  makes  one  of 
the  most  perfect  implements  that  can  be  imagined  for  mellowing 
the  surface  of  moss  bound  meadows,  and  for  scarifying  meadows 
and  pastures  where  the  grass  has  run  out,  which  it  is  desirable  to 
re-seed  without  plowing. 

We  did  not  test  among  lumps  and  clods,  but  it  was  very  evi- 
dent from  its  mode  of  action  that  it  would  be  a  most  effectual 
mode  of  breaking  these  down,  and  it  will  probably  prove  a 
better  implement  for  this  purpose  than  Crosskill's  clod  crusher, 
or  any  of  the  numerous  imitations  of  that  implement  with  which 
the  market  abounds.  It  is  also  admirably  adapted  to  working 
fallows.  It  is  not  well  adapted  to  level  uneven  land  or  to  cover 
seed.  In  these  respects  it  would  not  answer  as  well  as  Mr.  Mor- 
gan's; but  as  a  superficial  pulverizer  we  cannot  speak  too  highly 
of  it.  As  it  is  designed  to  meet  a  difficulty  in  practical  hus- 
bandry which  no  preceding  machine  accomplishes  as  well,  we 
recommend  to  the  Executive  Committee  to  award  a  special  gold 
medal  to  Mr.  Nishwitz  for  this  invention. 

CULTIVATOES. 

Class  I — For  Corn  and  Root  Crops,  Best  One-horse  Culti- 
vator, ONE  Row. 

There  were  two  entries  in  this  class,  one  by  Alden  &  Co., 
Auburn,  and  by  N.  Hawks,  Appleton,  Maine.  The  weight  of 
Alden's   machine  is         pounds.     Price,   $12.50. 

The  frame,  ABCDEFGH,  Fig.  125,  with  various  additions 
and  substitutions,  is  made  to  accomplish  a  great  variety  of  ser- 
vices in  practical  husbandry,  as  seen  in  Fig.  125.  It  is  used 
simply  as  a  cultivator  for  ordinary  purposes.  The  thills,  A  B 
and  C  D,  are  of  white  ash;  as  seen  in  the  figure  they  are  22  inches 
above  the  bars,  E  F  and  G  H,  but  may  be  raised  or  lowered  \\ 
inches.  The  upright  and  diagonal  braces  are  of  hoop  iron;  the 
bars  of  oak.  The  teeth  are  of  steel;  the  hind  tooth  is  in  the 
form  of  a  double  diamond,  the  three  front  ones  are  half  diamond. 
The  teeth  are  reversible,  so  as  to  throw  the  earth  to  or  from 
the  row.  Throwing  the  earth  from  the  row  he  went  within  an 
inch  of  it.  The  piece  of  ground  assigned  to  him  for  trial  was 
excessively  weedy.     On  going  twice  over  it,  it  was  thoroughly 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


255 


cleared  of  weeds,  and  the  ground  was  well  melloAved  two  inches 
deep.  It  is  converted  into  a  marker  for  planting  corn  by  taking 
off  the  four  teeth  and  bolting  a 
bar  Ion  Of  enough  to  mark  three 
rows  on  the  under  side  of  the 
arm,  G  H.  It  is  shown  as  a  corn- 
marker  in  Fig.  126.  The  teeth 
are  wood,  and  their  action  will  be 
understood  by  an  inspection  of 
the  figure.  Pegs,  not  shown  in 
the  figure,  are  driven  diagonally 
into  the  upper  corners  of  the  cross 
bar,  which  support  weights  when 
it  is  desired  to  press  the  markers 
deeper  into  the  ground.  It  is  ar- 
ranged as  a  quack  rake  by  insert- 
ing fifteen  teeth  curved  forward 
in  an  arm  similar  to  the  potato 
marker.  The  price  of  these  teeth 
is  $2..25. 

For  hilling  corn^  a  diamond 
tooth  is  placed  in  front,  having 
expansible  wings.  Two  other 
teeth  are  placed  at  H  and  G, 
which  throw  the  earth  towards 
the  corn. 

To  cover  two  I'ows  of  potatoes^ 
four  small  plows,  with  long  wings 
(it  takes  twenty  minutes  to  make 
this  change)  are  screwed  on  to 
the  arms  of  the  machine.  With 
this  arrangement  the  potatoes 
were  covered  in  going  backward 
and  forward,  raising  a  ridge  4  inches  high. 


Jy'iff.  725. 


J^ig.   i26. 


In  a  word,  this  machine 
cultivates  between  the  rows  in 
the  usual  manner.  It  marks 
furrows  for  corn,  potatoes,  or 
any  other  crop  requiring  to 
be  planted  in  straight  lines; 
rakes  quack  or  other  roots  out 


256  Report  on  Trials  of  Flows. 

of  the  soil,  leaving  them  in  rows  upon  the  surface.  It  makes  the 
furrows  for  any  crops  requiring  to  be  planted  in  hills,  and  covers 
them,  ridging  them  as  much  as  is  required.  It  was  tried  by  very 
severe  tests  in  the  most  difficult  soils  and  circumstances,  and  did 
good  work  in  all. 

The  work  of  Mr.  Hawks'  machine  has  been  described  under 
the  head  of  "Ditching  Plows,"  in  Class  VII,  as  a  seed-planter, 
cultivator,  potato-digger,  etc.  As  the  two  machines  were  entered 
only  as  cultivators,  we  can  only  compare  them  strictly  as  such. 
We  are  of  opinion  that  Alden's  Cultivator  cut  up  the  weeds,  and 
mellowed  the  ground,  and  performed  the  legitimate  work  of  a 
cultivator  better  than  Hawks,  and  we  therefore  award  it  the  gold 
medal  in  this  section  of  Class  I. 

For  the  same  section  of  Class  I,  only  one  entry  was  made  by 
A.  L.  Brierly  &  Co.,  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  who  entered  Phifers' 
Improved  Wheel  Corn,  Cotton  and  Potato  Plow  and  Cultivator, 
which  is  represented  in  Fig.  127. 

The  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  4  feet  6  inches;  length  of  axle 
or  distance  between  the  wheels  at  their  maximum  separation  is 
5  feet  4  inches.  The  axle  is  of  wrought  iron,  1|  inches  in 
diameter.  The  wheels  may  be  run  together  by  means  of  a  sliding 
collar  and  jDiuching  screw,  so  that  their  distance  from  each  other 
will  be  only  2  feet  6  inches.  They  may  be  made  to  take  any 
intermediate  place  between  these  maximum  and  minimum  points. 

Four  wooden  bars  seen  in  the  figure,  each  21  inches  long,  are 
adjusted  over  the  axle  by  a  circular  clip,  the  shank  of  which 
passes  through  the  bar  and  is  fastened  by  a  nut.  A  slotted  iron 
bar  is  bolted  to  the  inner  ends  of  each  pair  of  bars.  A  vertical 
bar,  with  slots  in  both  directions,  is  bolted  to  each  bar  just 
in  advance  of  the  axle,  and  secured  by  fangs  on  the  top  and  bot- 
tom; from  this  vertical  bar  and  jointed  to  it  a  lever  extends 
backwards  2  feet  7  inches,  and  1  foot  10  inches  downward.  It  is 
curved  downward  at  its  lower  end,  and  slit  so  as  to  embrace  the 
head  of  the  plow  or  cultivator  tooth. 

A  projection  extending  backward  at  an  acute  angle  receives  a 
brace,  which  hinges  on  a  bar  below  the  lifting  lever,  as  shown  in 
the  cut.  The  brace  is  perforated  by  nine  holes,  which  are  ke3'ed 
to  the  projection  from  the  curved  end  of  the  lever;  the  inner  end 
of  the  lever  is  adjusted  by  a  rod  and  screw  running  through  the 
wooden  bars.  The  cultivator  teeth  are  fastened  to  the  lever  by 
an  iron  bolt  and  wooden  pin.     If  the  ploAv  or  cultivator  tooth 


Report  of  the  Judges. 


257 


17 


258  Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 

encounters  any  sudden  strain,  the  wooden  pin  breaks  at  once,  and 
its  connection  by  the  bolt  leaves  it  simply  as  a  loose  joint,  and 
takes  off  all  the  strain  until  the  obstacle  is  passed. 

It  will  be  seen  by  a  careful  study  of  this  arrangement  that  it 
provides  for  a  very  wide  range  of  adjustment.  The  wheels  may 
be  set  at  any  distance  apart  by  raising  or  lowering  the  curved 
levers  in  the  slots  of  the  vertical  bars.  The  plow  points  may  be 
made  to  take  more  or  less  depth  by  means  of  the  lifting  lever. 
Any  one  or  more  of  the  plows  can  be  lifted  from  the  ground, 
either  wholly  or  in  part,  by  the  holes  at  the  slot  ends  of  the 
curved  levers;  they  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened,  and  the 
plov/  can  be  made  to  go  as  deep  or  as  shallow  as  is  desired. 

There  is  a  semicircular  arch  shown  in  the  fio-ure,  one  end  of 
which  rests  on  the  axle  and  the  other  on  the  slotted  bars;  it  is 
furnished  on  the  outer  circle  with  notches.  A  thumb  latch  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  lifting  lever  works  a  rod  connected  with  a 
spiral  spring,  and  permits  a  bolt  to  enter  the  notches,  by  which 
the  teeth  are  raised  out  of  the  ground. 

A  convenient  seat  for  the  driver,  resting  on  a  steel  spring,  is 
seen  in  the  figure.  An  arm  projecting  laterally  can  be  bolted  to 
the  end  of  either  of  the  curved  levers,  by  which  the  number  of 
plow  or  cultivator  teeth  can  be  increased  at  pleasure. 

The  machine  is  also  provided  with  a  steering  apparatus.  An 
iron  bar  is  bolted  to  the  under  side  of  the  axle,  having  a  circular 
disk  in  the  center,  in  which  is  a  circular  slot.  The  pin  of  the 
tongue  is  inserted  in  the  slot,  but  is  fastened  by  a  bolt  kept  in 
place  by  a  spiral  spring.  When  the  spring  is  raised  by  a  lever 
the  tono-ue  has  a  motion  of  rotation  to  the  extent  of  the  circular 
slots.  An  iron  bar  1  foot  4  inches  long  projects  from  the  tongue 
on  each  side,  and  a  chain  passes  from  either  end  of  it  to  the  ends 
of  the  under  bar.  A  lever  can  therefore  change  the  angle  of  the 
tongue  with  the  axle  at  pleasure.  The  machine  was  tried  in  all 
the  operations  that  it  professed  to  perform,  although  we  could 
only  consider  it  officially  as  a  cultivator. 

It  first  operated  as  a  seed-sower,  scattering  rye  very  evenly, 
and  covering  it  with  four  plows  running  shallow  and  turning  the 
earth  all  one  way.  Next  it  worked  with  seven  cultivator  teeth, 
throwing  the  earth  in  opposite  directions.  It  cultivated  two  rows 
of  corn,  one  plow  on  each  side  throwing  earth  towards  the  corn 
and  one  throwing  it  away  from  it.  Again,  all  the  plows  threw 
earth  towards  the  corn,  and  then  both   threw  it  away  from  it. 


Report  of  tee  Judges.  259 

The  changes  to  accomplish  these  different  o])jects  can  be  made 
very  easily;  in  no  case  did  it  require  more  than  six  minutes  for 
that  purpose.  It  did  all  the  work,  and  went  through  all  the  tests 
to  which  it  was  subjected  in  a  very  perfect  manner.  It  worked 
close  to  the  corn  rows,  and,  by  means  of  the  steering  apparatus, 
it  could  be  made  to  move  around  a  hill  or  a  sing-le  stalk  which 
happened  to  stand  out  of  line,  without  injuring  it  or  touching  it. 
It  destroyed  the  weeds  very  satisfactorily,  and  it  was  tested  in  as 
weedy  a  j)atch  and  as  tough  a  soil  as  we  ever  saw.  It  pulverized 
the  soil  as  well  as  could  be  desired.  The  only  fault  that  we 
noticed  in  the  whole  course  of  the  protracted  trial  which  we  gave 
to  it  was  that,  in  some  very  bad  places,  it  clogged  somewhat.  It 
is  very  strong  in  all  its  parts,  and  we  think  it  is  not  liable  to  get 
out  of  order.  The  material  is  very  skillfully  distributed,  the 
greatest  amount  of  material  being  distributed  to  the  parts  where 
the  strain  is  greatest. 

AVe  award  the  gold  medal  to  this  machine  in  the  second  section 
of  the  first  class. 

Class  II — For  Mellowing  Soil  and  Killing  Weeds. 

Ford  &  Howe,  of  Oneonta,  N.  Y.,  entered  for  this  section  of 
Class  11.     Weight,  480  pounds.     Price,  $G0. 

The  drawing,  Fig.  128,  will  give  a  very  clear  idea  of  its  con- 
struction. The  evener  A  B  swings  on  the  under  side  of  the 
tongue,  from  the  evener  iron  bars  run  backward  diagonally  to 
a  little  beyond  the  middle  of  the  bars  of  the  frame  from  which 
the  cultivator  teeth  are  suspended;  hence,  although  the  horses 
are  hooked  to  the  end  of  these  bars,  neither  horse  can  pull  more 
than  another,  their  action  being  equalized  by  the  evener  as  in  the 
common  whiffietree.  It  will  be  seen  that  a  brace  runs  forward 
from  about  the  middle  of  each  shank  of  the  tooth,  and  bolts  into 
the  bars  of  the  frame.  There  are  several  holes  pierced  through 
these  bars  near  the  lower  end;  by  changing  the  pins  through 
these  bolts  a  greater  or  less  angle  can  be  given  to  the  plane  of 
the  teeth  as  they  enter  the  ground.  The  tongue  has  an  opening 
in  the  middle,  from  D  to  E,  which  enables  the  driver  more  easily 
to  strike  a  straight  line.  It  can  rotate  from  right  to  left  around 
the  pin  C.  There  is  a  friction  wheel  on  the  under  side  of  the 
tono-ue,  which  rolls  on  the  iron  arc  G.  The  driver,  seated  in  the 
chair,  with  a  foot  on  each  of  the  outer  bars,  carries  himself  to  the 


260 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


Report  of  the  Judges.  261 

right  or  the  left,  as  he  chooses;  he  thus  turns  the  machine  at  his 
pleasure,  and  avoids  any  plant  which  may  stand  out  of  the  line. 
By  means  of  a  crank  not  seen  in  the  iigure,  the  teeth  may  be 
entirely  lifted  out  of  the  ground  or  made  to  run  deeper  or  shal- 
lower. By  drawing  out  the  pin  at  E,  the  tongue  may  be  turned  on 
the  other  pin  as  pivot.  By  this  arrangement  it  is  stowed  away 
when  not  in  use  with  much  econoni}^  of  space.  The  blades  of  the 
teeth  may  be  turned  from  the  right  to  the  left  so  as  to  throw  the 
earth  either  to  or  trom  the  corn.  Where  used  as  a  gang  plow, 
three  beams  and  three  rows  of  teeth  are  used;  for  cultivating  in 
corn  only  two  sets  are  employed.  It  does  its  work  extremely 
well,  and  the  only  objection  to  it  that  we  observed  is  that  it 
takes  considerable  time  to  make  the  changes,  viz.:  twenty  min- 
utes to  change  it  from  a  gang  plow  to  a  corn  cultivator,  and 
twelve  minutes  to  change  the  angle  of  the  teeth  so  as  to  throw 
earth  to  the  corn  when  it  had  been  throwing  it  away  from  it. 
We  award  it  a  gold  medal  in  this  section  of  the  class. 

In  the  second  section  of  Class  II,  William  H.  Burtis  k  Co., 
Maltaville,  Saratoga  county,  entered  McQueston's  Improved  Cul- 
tivator. 

This  implement  will  be  understood  by  an  inspection  of  the 
annexed  Fig.  129,  without  any  further  description.  Weight,  100 
pounds.     Price,  $35. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  point  of  each  spade  has  a  horizon- 
tal range  of  nine  inches  on  the  diagonal  rod  which  passes  through 
the  shank  just  above  the  base  of  the  spade.  Each  of  the  beams 
to  which  the  spades  are  attached  work  freely  on  a  centre  at  the 
front  end,  which  enables  the  attendant  to  raise  out  of  the  ground 
or  press  them  into  it  at  pleasure;  they  also  have  a  lateral  range 
of  a  complete  semicircle.  The  wrought  iron  arch  in  front  is  two 
inches  wide  and  one-half  an  inch  thick.  The  wheels  are  of  cast 
iron,  14  inches  in  diameter  by  2  inches  wide.  The  shovels  are 
of  steel,  5 1  inches  wide  and  10  inches  long.  The  work  was  well 
done  in  all  places  where  it  was  tried;  it  stirred  the  soil  to  a 
depth  of  6  inches,  which  was  about  1^  inches  deeper  than  any 
of  the  others.  It  never  was  observed  to  clog.  It  has  one 
peculiarity  in  which  it  differs  from  all  the  others,  which  we  must 
confess  we  do  not  quite  understand — it  leaves  the  grass  and  weeds 
on  the  top  of  the  ground  without  burying  them,  while  all  the 
others  bury  them.     The  greatest  objection  to  it  is  that  it  makes 


262 


Report  on  Trials  of  Plows. 


very  hard  work  for  the  attendant.     Where  a  machhie  is  desired 
to  be  regulated  by  handles  and  without  permitting  the  attendant 


to  ride,   this  machine    can   be    confidently   recommended.     We 
•iward  the  ffold  medal  to  this  section  of  the  class. 


JOHN  STANTON  GOULD, 
ELISHA  R.  POTTER, 
PETER  CRISPELL,  Jr., 
HENRY  WATERMAN, 


B.  P.  JOHNSON, 
SANFORD  HOWARD, 
JOSEPH  McGRAW. 


Note.— Mr.  Conger  was  not  present  at  the  trial.  Mr.  Geddes  was  only  present  for  a 
single  day,  and  took  no  part  in  the  decision.  Prof.  Pierce  declines  to  have  his  name 
appended  to  the  report,  as  he  does  not  concur  in  some  of  its  statements. 


EEPOET  OF  THE  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE 


ON    THE 


SUPPLEMENTARY    PLOW    TRIALS, 

Held  at  Brattleboro',  June  2,  3  and  4,  1868. 


The  Executive  Committee  of  the  New  York  State  Ao-ricultiiral 
Society,  having  been  informed  by  the  report  of  the  judges  of  the 
plow  trial  instituted  by  the  Society  at  Utica,  last  year,  that,  from 
accidental  circumstances,  they  were  unable  to  complete  the  trials 
necessary  to  ascertain  the  facts  in  relation  to  the  plow  and  its 
working,  which  were  of  great  importance  to  the  plow-wright  and 
the  farmer,  it  appointed  a  special  committee,  consisting  of  the 
chairman  of  the  board  of  judges  and  the  consulting  engineer  of 
the  Society,  who  were  requested  to  complete  the  trials  at  such 
time  and  place  as  they  might  deem  most  desirable  in  order  to 
obtain  correct  results. 

In  pursuance  of  this  appointment,  they  fixed  on  Brattleboro', 
Vermont,  as  the  place,  and  June  2,  1868,  as  the  time  for  obtaining 
the  supplementary  tacts  which  were  necessary  to  the  completion 
of  the  plow  report. 

The  points  upon  which  we  endeavored  to  obtain  light  were  the 
following: 

I.  What  is  the  inbrease  of  power  required  for  each  successive 

inch  of  depth  in  plowing  ? 
II.  What  is  the  increase  of  power  required  for  each  successive 
inch  of  width  in  plowing  ? 

III.  What  is  the  increase  of  power  required  when  the  furrow 

slice  remains  of  the  same  size   for  each  successive 
increment  of  velocity  ? 

IV.  What  proportion  of  the  total  amount  of  power  consumed 

in  plowing  is  absorbed  by  the  dilferent  parts  of  the 
plow,  viz.,  the  land  side,  the  share,  the  mould-board? 
V.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  coulter  on  draught? 


264  Report  of  the  Special  Coiimjttee. 

VI.  Does  the  skim-plow  consume  more  or  less  power  than  the 

coulter  ? 
VII.  What  is  the  elasticity  of  cliiFerent  soils  ? 
VITL.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  wheel  on  draught  ? 
IX.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  plowman  on  draught  ? 

We  had  ascertained  by  previous  trials  that  one  furrow  varied 
very  greatly  in  tenacity  from  another  lying  closely  contiguous  to 
it,  and  this  difference  was  so  great  that  it  sometimes  required  a 
force  of  three  hundred  pounds  to  overcome  it. 

It  was,  therefore,  in  our  judgment,  of  great  importance  to 
obtain  a  piece  of  land  for  the  trials  as  homogeneous  as  possible 
in  its  texture  and  as  free  from  local  obstacles,  such  as  stumps, 
stones  and  roots,  as  could  be  obtained.  In  order  to  guard  against 
interruptions  from  continuous  rainy  weather,  it  was  desirable  to 
select  land  which  drained  easily  and  rapidly.  The  lands  on  the 
Connecticut  river,  near  Brattleboro',  met  these  conditions  more 
nearly  than  any  others  with  which  we  were  acquainted,  and  the 
trial  was  accordingly  appointed  for  that  locality. 

The  plowing  was  done  on  the  meadow  belonging  to  the  Brattle- 
boro' Lunatic  Asylum,  which  lies  about  ten  feet  above  the  summer 
level  of  the  Connecticut  river,  but  w^hich  is  often  entirely  covered 
by  the  spring  floods.  The  soil  is  a  sandy  loam,  somewhat  stiffer 
than  is  usual  in  that  class  of  lands,  and  very  full  of  micaceous 
scales.  It  has  been  in  sod  for  twelve  years  past;  the  grass,  which 
was  chiefly  blue  grass,  poa  pixdensis,  was  very  thick  upon  the 
ground,  and  the  roots  were  tough  and  thick.  In  some  of  the 
furrows  there  were  found  thick  masses  of  quack  roots  {Triticmn 
repens);  in  others  there  was  a  great  deal  of  hardback  (jSpircea 
tomentosa)]  in  some  others,  both  kinds  of  roots  were  combined. 
Although  the  general  appearance  of  the  meadow  was  level,  yet  it 
was  nevertheless  considerably  rolling,  and  it  was  found  that  there 
was  considerable  difference  in  the  draught  of  the  furrows  which 
were  turned  so  as  to  fall  down  hill  or  up  hill. 

As  examples  of  the  differences  thus  caused,  we  refer  to  the 
seventy-second  experiment,  where  the  furrow  was  turned  down 
hill,  and  the  seventy-third,  where  it  was  turned  up  hill;  the 
difference  in  draught  being  76  pounds  in  favor  of  the  down-hill 
furrow.  The  same  result  is  also  exhibited  in  the  seventh-sixth 
and  seventy-seventh  experiments,  where  the  difference  was  96 
pounds.     The  difference  between  the  seventy-fourth  and  seventy- 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials. 


265 


fifth  experiments  was  136  pounds,  which  was  caused  by  the 
seventy-fifth  being  turned  up  hill,  and  also  to  the  roots  of  the 
hardback,  which  varied  from  one-eighth  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.     The  soil  was  very  moist  from  recent  copious  rains. 

Governor  F.  Holbrook  was  kind  enough  to  procure  for  us  the 
various  plows,  with  the  necessary  adjustments  required  for  the 
trial;  and  also,  at  our  request,  negotiated  for  the  use  of  the  land 
and  for  the  the  teams  and  assistants. 

We  obtained  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Henry  Brooks,  of  Concord, 
well  known  as  a  very  skillful  plowman,  and  his  services  as  such 
were  perfectly  satisfactory. 

Governor  Holbrook,  of  Vermont;  Governor  Brown,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Mr.  Joel  Nourse,  of  Boston,  the  inventor  of  the 
well  known  Eagle  plow,  were  present  with  us  at  all  the  trials, 
and  their  advice  and  assistance  were  of  great  value.  Mr.  G. 
Tucker,  of  the  Country  Gentleman,  was  also  with  us  during  the 
whole  time. 

We  began  our  experiments  with  two  horses,  but  finding  it 
difficult  to  preserve  a  perfectly  uniform  breadth  of  furrow,  owing 
to  the  irregularity  of  their  walking,  we  used  four  horses,  walking 
in  pairs,  so  that  the  irregular  walk  of  one  team  compensated  for 
the  irregularity  of  the  other.  Finding  that  four  horses  made  the 
experiments  so  much  more  satisfactory,  we  continued  the  use  of 
them  throughout. 


I.  Experiments  to  determine  the  increase  of  power  required 
for  each  successive  inch  of  depth  in  plowing  with 

Holbrook'' s  Swivel  Plow,  JSTo.  4: 


c 

to 

S 

a> 

o 
6 

<o 

Width  of  furrow, 
inches. 

03 

o 
1 

P 

REMARKS. 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6i 

7 
7 
7 
1\ 

13i 

131 
13i 
13i 
13^ 

494 
611 

557 
575 

584 

5  This  was  probably  a  mis-readina;  of  the  dynamometer, 
\      and  is  rejected  in  making  up  the  averages. 

^  Average  of  third  and  fourth  experiments,with  a  furrow 
\      slice  of  the  same  size,  566  pounds. 

266 


Report  of  the  Special  Coiimpitee. 


Holbrookes  Sivivel  Plow,  JSfo.  4  (Continued). 


■^ 


•73 
O 

a 


KEMARKS. 


9 
10 


^11 


tl2 

tl3 
14 


11 


14 

15 
15 

12 
13 


13 


13 

13 
13 


634 

641 
660 

482 
457 


582 


504 

505 
501 


{The  average  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  experiments  is  609 
pounds.  Although  the  sixth  is  half  an  inch  wider 
than  the  fifth,  the  excess  is  chiefly  due  to  the  turn- 
ing of  the  furrow  up  hill  in  the  sixth. 
^  Average  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  experiments,  651 
\      pounds. 

{Average  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  experiments,  469 
pounds.  The  excess  of  draught  of  the  ninth  over 
the  tenth  was  due  to  old  bones  which  lay  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow. 
{The  work  without  the  coulter  was  very  poor;  the 
furrow  slice  was  torn  and  jagged ;  the  furrows  did 
not  lap  well ;  the  grass  was  ill  covered,  and  the 
pulverization  was  imperfect. 

Work  good  in  all  respects. 

(  Average  of  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  experiments, 
(      5025  pounds. 


*  The  coulter  was  here  removed,  and  the  plow  was  worked,  cutting  the  sod  with  the 
shin. 

\  The  coulter  was  here  replaced,  but  was  set  so  that  it  only  penetrated  one  inch  into 
the  soil. 

%  The  coulter  was  here  brought  down  within  three  inches  of  the  sole  of  the  plow. 


.This  plow  made  the  best  pulverization  at  a  depth  of  seven 
inches.  It  was  slightly  worse  at  eight  inches;  but  at  depths  greater 
or  less  than  these  the  inferiority  of  its  work  was  very  marked. 

The  average  depth  of  the  first  ten  experiments  was  7.05  inches; 
the  average  breadth  of  the  first  ten  experiments  was  13.65  inches; 
the  average  draught  of  the  first  ten  experiments  was  565  pounds. 

This  average  draught  of  all  the  trials  agrees  within  one  pound 
with  the  average  draught  of  the  third  and  fourth  experiments, 
which  correspond  with  it  in  the  size  of  the  furrow  slice. 
Recwpitulation  of  Averages. 


Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Differences,  pounds. 

6 

12^ 

469 

.. 

6^ 

131 

494 

25 

7 

13^ 

566 

72 

1\ 

131 

609 

43 

8 

15 

651 

42 

Supplementary  Plow  Trials. 


267 


The  average  difference  of  draught  for  each  half  inch  of  depth 
is  45.5  pounds,  or  91  pounds  to  each  inch.  The  accuracy  of  this 
average  is  somewhat  impaired  by  the  fact  that  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  breadth  of  the  furrows,  the  extremes  being  2|  inches  apart. 

We  next  began  a  series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  rates 
of  draught  to  depth  with  Holbrook's  Plow  No.  69,  with  a  coulter 
and  sod  mould-board: 


C 
3 
O 

a 

3 


REMARKS. 


15 

16 
17 

18 
19 
20 
21 

22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 

28 
29 

30 
31 

32 
33 


34 
35 
36 
37 


10 
10 
10 
10 


10^ 
lOi 
11 
11 


16 
16 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 
18 

18 
18 

18 
18 
18 
18 


18 
18 
18 


*118 
*107 
*  99 
647 
594 
540 
551 
558 
618 
626 
603 
603 
578 

744 
791 

800 
871 
755 
734 


876 
1,215 

976 
1,080 


Average  of  fifteenth,  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  experi- 
ments, 108  pounds. 

Average  of  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  experiments, 
621  pounds. 

Average  of  twentieth  and  twenty-first  experiments, 
5455  pounds. 

Average  of  twenty-second  and  twenty-third  experi- 
ments, 588  pounds. 

Average  of  twenty-fourth,  twenty-fifth,  twenty-sixth 
and  twenty-seventh  experiments,  601  pounds. 

A-verage  of  twenty-eighth  and  twenty-ninth  experi- 
ments, 767  pounds.  In  the  twenty-ninth,  the 
coulter  obstructed  by  quack  roots. 

In  the  thirtieth  experiment  the  coulter  obstructed  by 
hardback  roots;  in  the  thirty-first  the  coulter 
obstructed  by  quack  and  hardback  roots.  Average 
of  thirtieth,  thirty-first,  thirty-second  and  thirty- 
third  experiments,  790  pounds. 

Average  of  thirty-fourth,  thirty-fifth,  thirty-sixth, 
and  thirty-seventh  experiments,  1,012  pounds. 
This  great  draught  was  caused  by  the  blunt  shank 
and  knee  of  the  coulter  running  into  the  sod 
at  this  depth.  They  are  retained  in  the  table  as 
instructive  illustrations  of  the  effect  of  a  blunt 
coulter,  but  are  rejected  in  making  up  the  averages, 
which  are  taken  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  thirty- 
third  experiments,  both  inclusive. 


*  Surface  draught. 

Average  depth  from  eighteenth  to  thirty-third  experiment.s, 
7.94  inches;  average  width,  17.80  inches;  average  draught,  663 
pounds;  average  prism,  141.33  square  inches.  Average  prism 
from  twenty-fourth  to  twenty-seventh  experiments,  144  square 
inches;  average  draught,  601  pounds. 


268 


Report  of  the  Special  Committee. 


In  this  series,  with  Plow  No.  69,  the  average  draught  of  the 
whole  series  exceeds  the  average  draught  of  the  series  of  experi- 
ments which  agree  with  it  in  the  size  of  the  furrow  slice  by  62 
pounds.  (Experiments  twenty-four,  twenty-five,  twenty-six  and 
twenty-seven,  eight  inches  deep  and  eighteen  inches  wide.) 

Recapitulation  of  Experiments  ivith  Plow  No.  69. 


Average  depth, 

Average  width, 

Average  draug't 

Difference, 

Size  of  prism, 

of  furrow, 

of  furrow, 

in  pounds. 

pounds. 

square  inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

5^ 

16 

621 

88 

6 

18 

545^ 

75i 

108 

7 

18 

588 

421 

126 

8 

18 

601 

13 

144 

9 

18 

767 

166 

162 

10 

18 

790 

23 

180 

Surfa 

;e  draught,  108  po 

unds. 

The  average  difference  in  the  draught  of  each  inch  in  depth  was 
61  pounds.  The  excess  of  75^  pounds  of  draught  in  the  furrow 
of  88  square  inches  over  the  furrow  with  108  square  inches  is 
anomalous,  and  was  caused  either  by  an  error  in  reading  of  the 
dynamometer  indication  or  by  some  local  obstruction.  The 
{j,nomaly  did  not  appear  until  the  indications  were  computed,  and 
it  was  then  too  late  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  it.  This  difierence 
was  not,  therefore,  included  in  the  average  of  61  pounds. 

The  next  set  of  experiments  to  determine  the  rates  of  draught 
to  depth  was  made  with  Holbrook's  Plow  No.  65,  the  coulter 
being  adjusted  to  lay  Jlat  furrows: 


^ 

^ 

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a 

o 

o 

O 

3    W 

,3    M 

A 

o 

«   a> 

■si 

REMARKS. 

«« 

.^  "* 

rd-'^ 

^ 

o 

-tj 

-*-» 

s 

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c« 

o 

P 

^ 

u 
P 

38 

%77 

39 

n 

324 

>  Average  of  thirty-ninth  and  fortieth  experiments, 

40 

2h 

328 

5      326  pounds. 

41 

u 

404 

}  Average  of  forty-first  and  forty-second  experiments, 
\      398  pounds. 

42 

•sk 

392 

43 

H 

459 

>  Average  of  forty-third  and  forty-fourth  experiments, 

44 

^k 

419 

3      439  pounds. 

Surface  draught. 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials. 


269 


-4J 

a 

^ 
2 

to 

O 

o 

O    O 

o  o 

'-  .9 

a, 

.9 
-1-3 

fn 

REMARKS 

O 

■*^ 

3 

p^ 

o3 

12; 

fi 

^ 

P 

/ 

45 

51 

451 

) 

46 

5^ 

463 

(  Average  of  forty-fifth,  forty-sixth,  forty-seventh 

47 

5^ 

428 

r      and  forty-eighth  experiments,  443  pounds. 

48 

5^ 

424 

49 
SO 

7 
7 
7 

520 

r  Average   of   forty-ninth,    fiftieth    and    fifty-first 

51 

512 

t      experiments,  512  pounds. 

52 

8 

574 

) 

53 

8 

545 

f  Average   of   fifty-second,   fifty-third,   fifty-fourth 

54 

8 

564 

(       and  fifty-fifth  experiments,  552  pounds. 

55 

8 

528 

) 

Average  depth  from  thirty-ninth  to  fifty-fifth  experiments,  both 
inclusive,  5.64  inches;  average  width  from  thirty-ninth  to  fifty- 
fifth  experiment,  both  incbisive,  11  inches;  average  draught 
from  thirty-ninth  to  fifty-fifth  experiments,  both  inclusive,  463 
pounds. 

The  average  draught  of  the  whole  series  of  experiments 
exceeds  the  average  of  the  forty-fifth,  forty-sixth,  forty-seventh 
and  forty-eighth  experiments,  which  agree  most  nearly  with  it  in 
the  size  of  the  furrow  slice,  by  20  pounds. 

Recapitulation  of  Experiments  with  Plow  No.  65 — Flat  furrow. 


Depth  of  fur- 

Width of  fur- 

Draught in 

Difference, 

Size  of  prism, 

row,  inches. 

row,  inches. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

square  inches. 

, . 

, , 

*77 

.... 

21 

326 

•• 

27.5 

3i 

398 

72 

38.5 

4^ 

439 

41 

49.5          ( 

5^ 

443 

4 

60.5 

7 

512 

69 

77 

8 

552 

40 

88 

*  Surface  draught. 

The  average  difi'erence  in  the  draught  of  each  inch  in  depth 
was  45.20  pounds. 

Experiments  to  determine  the  rates  of  draught  to  depth  made 
with  Holbrook's  Plow  No.  65.  with  a  coulter  adjusted  to  lap 
furrows: 


270 


Report  of  the  Special  Committee. 


o 
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o 

u 

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o 

PL, 

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Cm  4) 

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8 

485 

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8 

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t61 

8 

509 

62 

8 

452 

63 

8 

458 

64 

8 

444 

65 

8 

459 

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7 

10 

384 

::67 

7 

10 

460 

68 

7 

10 

370 

69 

7 

10 

420 

70 

7 

10 

390 

71 

7 

10 

379 

REMARKS 


The  furrow  was  not  of  full  width ;  not  averaged. 

Average   of   fifty-seventh,    fifty-eighth  and  fifty- 
ninth  experiments,  545  pounds. 

Average  of  sixtieth   and  sixty-first  experiments, 
512  pounds. 

Average  of  sixty-second,  sixty-third,  sixty-fourth 
and  sixty-fifth  experiments,  453  pounds. 

Average  of  sixty-sixth  and  sixty-seventh  experi- 
ments, 422  pounds. 

Average  of  sixty-eighth,    sixty-ninth,    seventieth 
and  seventy-first  experiments,  389  pounds. 


*0n  examining  the  plow  after  it  had  been  used  in  these  four  experiments,  it  was 
found  that  the  coulter  was  excessively  dull ;  it  was,  in  fact,  an  unfinished  one  which 
had  been  put  in  inadvertently  when  the  change  was  made  for  a  lap  furrow.  A  sharp 
coulter  was  then  inserted. 

•f  The  coulter  in  these  two  experiments  was  very  badly  choaked  with  roots  which 
collected  across  its  edge.     To  remedy  this  the  rake  was  very  considerably  increased. 

%  It  was  found  that  the  coulter,  in  these  two  experiments,  had  slipped  down  so  as  to 
loose  the  extra  rake  which  had  been  given  to  it,  and  the  grass  roots  again  gathered  ou 
its  edge.     More  rake  was  then  given  to  it. 


The  difference  between  plowing  seven  inches  or  eight  inches 
deep,  according  to  these  experiments,  is  64  pounds.  The  same 
plow  showed  a  difference  between  seven  inches  and  eight  inches, 
when  turning  a  flat  furrow,  of  40  pounds.  (Experiments  forty-nine 
to  fifty-five.) 

Experiments  to  determine  the  rates  of  draught  to  depth  with 
Holbrook's  Sod  and  Subsoil  Plow  No.  69,  with  a  stubble  mould- 
board  and  a  skim  plow  attached  to  the  front  of  the  beam: 

The  skim  plow  turned  a  furrow  two  and  a  half  inches  deep  in 
all  cases;  the  remainder  of  the  furrow  slice  was  turned  by  the 
main  plow. 

The  column  headed  "Depth  of  furrow"  indicates  the  whole 
depth  turned  by  the  skim  and  the  main  plow. 

The  point  of  the  skim  plow  was  eleven  inches  in  advance  of 
the  point  of  the  main  plow. 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials. 


271 


.§ 

2 

3    CO 

2 

Si       . 

,3   m 

-a 
a 

=3 

o 
a. 

OJ 

«C  a> 

&4 

-ot 

,S 

REMARKS 

o 

p. 

5"" 

c3 

125 

fl 

^ 

« 

72 

9 

12 

621 

>  Average  of  seventy-second  and  seventy-third  experi- 

/3 

9 

12 

697 

5      nients,  659  pounds. 

*74 

10 

12 

733 

>  Average  of  seventy-fourth  and  seventy-fifth  experi- 

*/5 

10 

12 

869 

\      ments,  801  pounds. 

76 

11 

12 

800 

)  Average  of  seventy-sixth  and  seventy-seventh  exper- 

*/; 

11 

12 

896 

5      iments,  848  pounds. 

78 

12 

12 

947 

>  Average  of  seventy -eighth  and  seventy-ninth  experi- 

/y 

12 

12 

1,003 

\      ments,  990  pounds. 

80 

13 

12 

1,012 

>  Average  of  eightieth  and  eighty-first  experiments, 

8i 

13 

12 

1,082 

5      1,047  pounds. 

182 

14 

12 

966 

\  Average  of  eighty-second  and  eighty-third  experi- 

83 

14 

12 

1,143 

5      ments,  1,054  pounds. 

*  Many  stones  in  the  bottom  of  furrow.         ]  This  was  not  quite  full  depth. 

Average  depth  from  seventy-second  to  eighty-third  experiments, 
11.5  inches;  average  width.  12  inches;  average  draught,  897 
pounds. 

The  average  draught  of  the  whole  series  of  experiments  falls 
below  the  mean  of  11  and  12  inches,  which  corresponds  with  it 
in  size,  21  pounds. 

Recapitulation  of  Experiments  with  Sod  and  Subsoil  Ploiv. 


Depth  of  fur- 

Width  of  fur- 

Draught in 

Difference, 

Size  of  prism. 

Yow,  inches. 

row,  inches. 

pounds. 

pounds. 

square  inches. 

9 

12 

659 

. . 

108 

10 

12 

801 

142 

120 

11 

12 

848 

47 

132 

12 

12 

990 

42 

144 

13 

12 

1,047 

57 

156 

14 

12 

1,054 

7 

168 

The  average  difference  in  the  draught  of  each  inch  in  depth 
was  59  pounds. 

The  work  of  this  plow  at  all  depths  was  very  perfect;  the 
ground  was  thoroughly  pulverized;  the  vegetation  was  perfectly 
buried,  and  the  surface  was  left  smooth  and  level  as  a  garden. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  work  was  much  l)etter  done  than 
it  could  have  been  done  by  a  spade. 


272  Report  of  thr  Special  Committee. 

In  making  these  experiments,  several  things  interesting  to  the 
practical  plowman  were  very  fully  exemplified: 

1.  The  unequal  tenacity  of  the  soil.  The  plowing  was  round 
a  centre  back  furrow.  As  the  land  grew  wider  the  furrows,  of 
course,  receded  farther  from  each  other.  While  testing  the  sod 
and  subsoil  plow  (seventy-second  to  eighty-third  experiments), 
one  of  the  furrows  ran  for  half  its  length  through  a  sandy  soil, 
while  the  other  ran  through  a  moist,  tenacious  loam.  The  even 
numbers  of  the  experiments  mark  the  sandy  furrows;  the  odd 
numbers  the  tenacious  loams.  The  average  draught  of  the  loamy 
furrows  is  102  pounds  greater  than  the  sandy  furrows. 

2.  The  im.poiiance  of  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  several  parts  of 
the  plow.  The  draught  as  indicated  in  all  the  tables  given  above 
is  much  heavier  than  it  would  have  been  if  one  uniform  depth 
and  width  of  furrow  had  been  adhered  to  throughout.  The 
change  from  one  sized  furrow  to  another,  of  course,  involved  a 
change  in  the  adjustment  of  the  plow,  and  this  was  not  always 
ascertained  on  the  first  or  even  on  the  second  trial.  When  this 
was  not  accurately  done,  the  plowman  exerted  his  strength  at  the 
end  of  a  long  lever  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the  maladjustment, 
which  was  at  once  indicated  by  the  index  of  the  dynamometer, 
sometimes  to  the  extent  of  150  pounds.  Some  of  the  experiments 
were  made  by  plowing  two  furrows,  or  once  around;  others  by 
four  furrows,  or  twice  around.  In  most  cases  the  two  last  furrows 
showed  less  draught  than  the  two  first,  because  the  plow  swam 
more  freely  and  required  less  interposition  on  the  part  of  the 
plowman.  As  examples  of  this,  we  refer  to  the  forty-tifih  and 
forty-sixth  experiments,  showing  an  averaged  draught  of  457 
pounds,  and  the  two  next  furrows  of  the  same  size,  which  only 
averaged  426  pounds,  showing  an  advantage  of  draught  amount- 
ing to  31  pounds,  arising  from  more  perfect  adjustment.  In  those 
last  furrows  the  plow  ran  for  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  distance 
by  itself,  without  a  touch  of  the  plowman's  finger,  and  for  the 
remaining  third  his  touch  was  the  lightest  possible.  The  same 
thing  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  sixty-second  and  sixty- 
third  with  the  sixty-fourth  and  sixty-fifth  experiments,  the  latter 
being  35  pounds  lighter  than  the  former,  for  the  same  reason. 
The  necessity  of  accurate  adjustment  was  very  clearly  illustrated 
in  the  action  of  plow  No.  Q^.  We  desired  to  adjust  it  for  a 
furrow  12  inches  deep  and  1(3  inches  Avide,  but  Mr.  Brooks, 
though    perfectly  acquainted   with    the    inq)l(Mni'nt,    was    utterly 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials.  273 

unablo  to  m:ike  it  take  such  a  furrow;  his  utmost  efforts  couhl  not 
force  it  more  thau  eight  inches  into  the  ground,  nor  could  it  take 
a  furrow  wider  than  twelve  inches.  More  than  two  hours  Avere 
spent  in  trying  to  make  it  swim  freely  in  the  desired  furrow,  but 
without  success,  although  Gov.  Holbrook  and  Mr.  Nourse,  both 
eminent  masters  of  the  art  of  plowing,  exerted  all  the  resources 
of  their  skill  to  make  it  work.  We  all  knew  that  the  plow  would 
work  admirably  in  such  a  furrow,  for  Ave  had  seen  it  do  it  again 
and  again.  We  broke  off  our  Avork  for  dinner,  quite  in  despair 
of  being  able  to  accomplish  what  we  designed  to  do  with  that 
ploAv.  While  sitting  at  dinner,  it  occurred  to  Mr.  Nourse  that 
the  difficulty  might  lie  in  the  beam.  Accordingly,  on  reassembling 
in  the  field,  after  dinner,  aa^c  found  that  the  Avorkman  had  care- 
lessly set  the  beam  out  of  its  true  direction,  so  that  it  turned  from 
land  and  out  of  the  ground  to  such  an  extent  that  the  clevis  could 
not  afford  vertical  or  lateral  motion  enough  to  correct  it.  These, 
tendencies  were  then  counteracted  by  an  opposite  adjustment  of 
the  coulter  to  make  it  take  more  land,  and  by  hooking  the  chain 
into  the  Avheel  guards  to  make  it  run  deeper.  We  then  had  no 
difficulty  in  performing  the  experiments  from  the  fifteenth  to  the 
thirty-seventh  Avith  relative  correctness,  although  the  absolute 
draught  was  undoubtedly  considerably  greater  thau  it  Avould  haA'^e 
been  had  the  beam  been  in  its  right  place. 

3.  The  importance  of  skill  in  the  2>lowman  ims  also  very  clearly 
manifested.  This  skill  is  desirable  to  hold  the  ploAv  to  advantage. 
Delicacy  and  sensitiveness  of  touch  are  almost  as  much  required 
in  ploAving  as  in  line  engraving.  The  ploAV  manifests  its  inten- 
tion to  go  astray  to  the  sympathetic  ploAvman  before  it  actually 
does  so;  a  very  slight,  an  almost  inappreciable  counter  resistance 
on  his  part,  promptl3'  applied,  will  check  the  Abolition  of  the  ploAv 
before  it  is  manifested  in  action,  but  if  the  goldeu  moment  is  lost, 
it  is  gone  forever.  The  volition  is  manifest  in  action,  and  an 
unsightly  alteration  in  the  size  of  the  furrow  slice  reveals  the 
ploAvman's  awkAvardness  to  CA'^ery  spectator.  But  the  skill  of  the 
ploAvman  is  not  alone  manifested  in  his  manner  of  holding;  it  is 
even  more  clearly  shoAvn  in  his  mode  of  tempering  the  ploAv.  A 
good  ploAvman  is  never  satisfied  until  his  plow  SAvims  absolutely 
free;  he  will  not  use  any  more  of  his  own  strength  than  is  really 
necessary,  knowing  as  he  does  that,  as  his  force  is  exerted  through 
levers,  every  pound  of  exertion  which  he  uses  reacts  on  the  horses 
with  a  tenfold  force.     He  will,  therefore,  alter  his  adjustments, 

18 


274  Report  of  the  Special  Committee. 

if  need  bo,  twenty  times  until  this  result  is  fully  accomplished 
When  the  plow  does  not  run  level,  but  is  frequently  changed  by 
the  plowman  from  one  side  to  the  other,  the  two  sides  of  the 
furrow  slice  will  be  found  to  be  unequal  in  thiclniess,  and,  there- 
fore, the  soil  of  the  thinner  edge  has  been  left  undisturbed  at  the 
bottom.  We  found  in  every  case  that  the  draught  of  the  plow  was 
lightest  when  it  was  going  smoothly  and  steadily  by  itself, 
untouched  by  the  plowman.  It  was  really  interesting  to  watch 
its  motions  when  running  thus  freely;  if  it  encountered  any  obstacle 
in  the  soil,  which  had  a  tendency  to  throw  it  out,  it  would  turn 
of  its  own  accord  to  take  more  land,  or  if  the  obstacle  directed  it 
inward,  toward  the  land,  it  would  turn  to  throw  itself  out;  and 
when  it  accomplished  the  object  it  would  quietly  settle  down 
again  to  its  level  and  proper  work.  It  was  truly  automatic  in 
its  motions,  but  this  was  only  so  when  the  dift'erent  parts  were 
adjusted  with  absolute  accuracy,  which  can  only  be  done  by  an 
accom})lished  plowman.  Seeing  these  facts  brought  out  so  clearly 
before  our  eyes,  it  was  a  cause  of  deep  regret  to  us  that  the  race 
of  finished  plowman  was  rapidly  running  out  in  the  State  of  New 
York. 

Our  plows  have  been  very  greatly  improved  within  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century;  but  the  sons  of  farmers  who  were  in  the 
noon  of  their  viffor  at  that  time  do  not  understand  the  art  of 
plowing  as  well  as  their  fathers  did.  We  think  that  the  State 
Agricultural  Society  could  exert  its  great  power  for  good  in  no 
direction  where  it  would  be  more  beneficial  to  farmers  than  in 
taking  measures  to  stimulate  a  taste  for  good  plowing  among  the 
rising  generation  of  farmers  in  New  York.  The  growing  class  in 
our  State,  who  farm  for  pleasure  as  well  as  profit,  might  do  much 
to  encourage  this  taste.  If  they  would  adcq^t  a  high  standard  of 
plowing,  and  insist  upon  their  workmen  approximating  closely 
to  it,  rewarding  the  closest  approximations  to  it  by  a  suitable 
pecuniary  recompense,  the  fashion  of  good  plowing  would  soon 
spread.  Just  as  the  fa.shion  of  skating  has  produced  an  al)undance  of 
elegant  skaters,  and  the  fashion  of  ba^^e-ball  playing  has  produced 
an  abundant  crop  of  admirable  batsmen,  throwers  and  catchers, 
so  the  fashion  of  good  plowing  would  supply  us  with  first-class 
plowmen. 

4.  Hie  actual  results  of  the  trial.  These  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing tables: 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials. 


275 


Table  shoiving  the  average  depth  and  width  of  furrow,  the  average  draught, 
the  average  size  of  prism,  and  the  average  of  the  ivhole. 


o 

o 

!-i 

1=1 

o 

ounds 
0  turn 
einch. 

PLOWS. 

3    CO 

eg 

Oh 

5 

erof  p 
ired  t 
squar 

M  ■"' 

^    -"^ 

£>D 

o  S 

^   S.X5 

PL, 

'O 

3 

gS^ 

S  o  ee 

a> 

^ 

^ 

2    M 

S    ^    <X> 

P 

P 

03 

^ 

Swivel  No  4 

7.05 

7.94 

5.65 

11.50 

13.65 
17.80 
11 
12 

505 
663 
463 
897 

96.23 
141.33 

62.15 
138.00 

5.87 
4.69 
7.45 
6.50 

No  69 

No   65 

Sod  and  Subsoil 

Average  ..• • 

8.03 

13.61 

647 

109.43 

6.10 

[a)  We  learn  from  this  table  that,  with  prisms  varying  very 
much  in  size,  the  largest  being  nearly  two  and  one  half  times 
greater  than  the  smallest,  the  power  required  for  cutting  and 
turning  a  lap  furrow  is  expressed  by  6.10  pounds  for  each  sec- 
tional square  inch  of  the  furrow  slice. 

[b)  We  learn  also  that  large  furrow  slices  are  turned  with 
more  economy  of  power  than  smaller  ones.  The  average  power 
required  to  turn  the  two  smaller  furrow  slices  of  79.19  square  inches 
was  6.66  pounds  per  square  inch,  while  the  power  required  to 
turn  the  two  larger  ones  of  139.66  square  inches  was  5.55  pounds, 
or  the  smaller  required  1.11  pounds  more  power  than  the  former. 
This  result  appears  less  favorably  when  considered  with  reference 
to  the  average  depth  of  the  furrows  than  it  does  in  relation  to  the 
square  inches.  The  two  shallowest  furrows  average  6.35  inches  in 
depth,  and  require  80.94  pounds  for  each  inch  of  depth.  The 
two  deepest  furrows  average  9.72  inches  in  depth,  and  require 
80.24  pounds  for  each  inch  of  depth. 

[c)  The  sod  and  subsoil  plow  seems  to  require  more  power 
than  it  does  when  it  is  worked  with  a  coulter.  Considered  with 
reference  to  the  sectional  area  of  the  slice,  the  sod  and  sul)SoiI 
requires  6.50  pounds  of  power  for  each  square  inch,  while  it  only 
requires  4.69  pounds  per  square  inch  when  used  with  the  coulter. 
Considered  with  reference  to  the  depth,  each  inch  of  the  sod  and 
subsoil  requires  78.00  pounds  of  power,  while  with  the  coulter  it 
requires  83.50  pounds,  showing  a  greater  expense  of  power  in  the 
sod  and  subsoil  plow  of  1.81  pounds  for  each  square  inch  of  sec- 
tional area,  and  5.50  pounds  less  power  for  each  inch  in  depth. 


276  Report  of  the  Special  Committee. 

(d)  No.  69  requires  1.18  pounds  less  power  for  each  square 
inch  of  sectional  area  than  the  swivel  and  2.14  pounds  less  for 
each  inch  in  depth.  The  swivel  consumes  80.14  pounds  and  No. 
69  consumes  78.00  pounds  of  power  for  each  inch  of  depth. 

(e)  No.  65  consumes  0.95  pounds  more  of  power  for  each  square 
inch  of  sectional  area  of  furrow  than  the  sod  and  subsoil  plow,  and 
3.94  pounds  more  for  each  inch  of  depth.  No.  65  consumes  81.94 
pounds,  and  the  sod  and  subsoil  78.00  pounds  for  each  inch  of  depth. 

In  order  to  afford  the  means  of  comparison,  we  here  insert  some 
of  the  results  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Pusey  and  Mr.  Morton,  which 
are  given  in  full  in  the  report  on  the  trials  of  plows  at  Utica,  in 
September,  1867: 

The  average  draught  of  Mr.  Pusey's  first  four  furrows  of  5,  6, 
7  and  8  inches  deep  was  53.84  pounds  for  each  inch  in  depth. 
The  average  draught  of  his  last  four  furrows,  9,  10,  11  and  12 
inches  deep,  was  57  pounds  for  each  inch  in  depth.  In  both  cases 
the  furrow  Avas  nine  inches  wide. 

In  Mr.  Morton's  experiments  the  shallower  furrovv^s  showed  an 
average  draught  of  85.40  pounds  for  each  inch  in  depth;  the 
deeper  ones  averaged  94.62  pounds;  the  furrow  in  both  cases  was 
nine  inches. 

The  power  required  in  Mr.  Pusey's  experiments  for  each  square 
inch  of  average  sectional  area  of  the  furrow  slice  in  the  four 
shalloAvest  furrows  was  5.98  pounds;  the  four  deepest  furrows 
required  6.33  pounds. 

In  Mr.  Morton's,  each  square  inch  of  sectional  area  in  the 
shallowest  furrows  required  9.49  pounds,  and  for  the  deepest 
10.51  pounds. 

The  experiments  of  Messrs.  Pusey  and  Morton  agree  in  making 
the  power  required  to  turn  each  square  inch  of  the  sectional  area 
greater  in  deep  than  in  shallow  furrows,  the  excess,  according  to 
Mr.  Pusey,  being  six  per  cent,  and  according  to  Mr.  Morton  it  is 
ten  per  cent.  According  to  our  experiments  it  is  seventeen  per 
cent  less.  Ours  were  made  with  different  ploAvs,  while  each  of 
theirs  was  made  with  the  same  plow,  which  may  partly  account 
for  the  discrepancy.  But  the  practical  point  is  very  clear,  from 
all  the  experiments,  that  the  power  required  for  deep  plowing  is 
not  materially  greater  in  proportion  to  the  work  done.  A  furrow 
twelve  inches  deep  can  be  plowed  with  about  twice  as  much  power 
as  a  furrow  six  inches  deep.  The  actual  power  consumed  by 
each  successive   inch  in  depth  was,  aecoi'ding  to  the  average  of 


8UPPLE3IENTARY  PlOW.  TRIALS. 


277 


our  experiments  for  all  the  plows,  64.05  pounds.  Accordino;  to 
Mr.  Pusey's  experiments  the  ditference  for  each  inch  was  63.33 
pounds.  According  to  Mr.  Morton's,  the  ditference  was  86.66 
pounds. 

II.  What  is  the  increase  of  power  required  for  each  successive 
inch  of  width  in  plowing  ? 

We  answer  this  question  by  the  following  table,  showing  the 
result  of  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  with  Holbrook's  Plow 
No.  65.  The  coulter  was  set  with  its  point  two  inches  above  the 
sole  of  the  plow.  We  began  with  the  narrowest  furrow,  working 
gradually  wider.  All  the  furrows  were  intended  to  be  seven 
inches  deep,  and  all  were  so  except  the  eighty-fourth,  which  was 
six  inches  deep: 


.a 

o 

so 

'^ 

(3 

d 
o 

_g 

oX) 

03 

'i^ 

^ 

ft 

*84 

8 

363 

*85 

8 

415 

*86 

8 

467 

*87 

9 

438 

*88 

9 

453 

89 

16 

525 

90 

16 

519 

91 

15 

509 

92 

15 

504 

193 

14 

513 

94 

14 

485 

95 

13 

.  453 

96 

13 

455 

97 

12 

451 

98 

12 

458 

99 

10 

454 

100 

10 

459 

101 

8 

421 

102 

8 

389 

REMARKS 


Average  of  eighty-fifth  and  eighty-sixth  experiments,  441 

pounds. 
Average  of  eighty-seventh  and  eigthy-eighth  experiments, 

443  pounds. 
Average  of  eighty-ninth  and  ninetieth  experiments,  522 

pounds. 
Average  of  ninety-first   and  ninety-second  experiments, 

496  pound-s. 
Average  of  ninety-third  and  ninety-fourth  experiments, 

499  pounds. 
Average  of  ninety-fifth  and  ninety-sixth  experiments,  454 

pounds. 
Average  of  ninety-seventh  and  ninety-eighth  experiments, 

454  pounds. 
Average  of  ninety-ninth  and  one  hundredth  experiments, 

456  pounds. 
Average  of  one  hundred  and  first  and  one  hundred  and 

second  experiment,  405  pounds. 


*  These  experiments  made  it  evident  that  the  plow  was  working  unnaturally.  Each 
successive  furrow  was  wider  than  the  next  succeeding  one;  the  sole  of  the  plow  was 
therefore  wedged  hy  the  shoulder  thus  formed,  and  required  more  power  than  it  would 
if  the  channel  on  the  right  hand  had  been  free.  We,  therefore,  concluded  to  begin 
with  the  widest  furrow  and  work  down  to  the  narrowest.  The  coulter  was  set  flush 
with  the  land  side. 

f  Stones  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow. 

X  At  this  point  we  set  the  point  of  the  coulter  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  from  the 
land  side. 


278 


Report  of  the  Special  Committee. 


The  average  width  of  the  furrows  from  the  eighty-ninth  to  one 
hundred  and  second  experiment  was  12.57  inches;  the  average 
drauglit  was  469  pounds;  the  average  increase  of  draught  for  each 
inch  is  19^  pounds. 

Recapitulation. 


Width  of  fur- 
row, inches. 

Draught  in 
pounds. 

Difference, 
pounds. 

Size  of  prism, 
square  inches. 

Draught  of  each  square 
inch  of  sectional  area, 
in  pounds. 

16 

522 

112 

4.64 

15 

496 

26 

105 

4.72 

14 

499 

3  + 

98 

5.09 

13 

454 

45 

91 

4.99 

12 

454 

, , 

84 

5.40 

10 

456 

24- 

70 

6.51 

8 

405 

51 

56 

7.30 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  draught  required  for  each  square 
inch  of  sectional  area  increases  as  the  size  of  the  area  diminishes. 
This  accounts  for  the  greater  amount  of  draught  of  this  plow,  as 
shown  in  the  table  on  pages  268,  269. 

III.  What  is  the  increase  of  power  required  when  the  furrow 
slice  remains  of  the  same  size  for  each  successive  increment  of 
velocity  ? 

We  endeavored  to  answer  this  question  by  the  following  experi- 
ments made  with  Holbrook's  Plow  No.  65,  cutting  a  furrow  seven 
inches  deep  and  fourteen  inches  wide: 


No.  of  ex- 
periment. 

Seconds. 

Yards. 

Pounds. 

AVERAGE. 

Seconds. 

Yards. 

Pounds. 

103.... 
104.... 
105.... 
106.... 
107.... 
108.... 

96 
125 
57 
58 
25 
26 

76 
76 
75 
73 
68 
68 

450 
519 
480 
520 
685 
676 

110 
57^ 

251 

76 
74 

68 

484i 
500 

680* 

In  order  to  facilitate  a  comparison  of  our  experiments  with 
those  of  Mr.  Pusey,  which  are  given  in  the  report  on  ploAvs,  we 
give  the  following  table,  in  which  the  preceding  experiments  are 
repeated  in  another  form: 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials. 


279 


Rate  of  going  per 
hour. 

Time  required  to  plow 
an  acre. 

Draught  of  plow. 

l^^jj  miles. 

9   67          " 
K   4  5           u 

4  hours,  25  minutes. 
2      "       39 
1      "      18 

484|  pounds. 

500 

680 

It  appears  from  the  foregoing  that,  when  the  speed  on  the 
second  trial  was  very  nearly  doubled,  the  draught  was  only 
increased  15i  pounds,  which  was  probably  due  to  inequalities  in 
the  soil;  and  when,  in  the  third  trial,  the  speed  was  again  more  than 
doubled,  the  draught  was  only  increased  180  pounds.  It  may  be 
considered  as  fully  settled  that  velocity  has  very  little  influence 
on  draught.  The  last  experiment  does,  indeed,  show  that  the 
draught  was  somewhat  increased,  and  this  was  also  the  case  in  the 
experiments  of  Messrs.  Morton  and  Pusey;  but  the  cause  of  this 
increase  was  very  apparent  in  our  trials;  and  we  have  no  doubt 
that  it  was  also  the  case  in  theirs.  When  the  speed  rose  to 
five  and  one-half  miles  an  hour  (nearly),  the  soil  was  thrown 
upwards  thirty  inches  high,  and  laterally  four  feet,  so  that  four 
of  the  preceding  furrows  were  covered  with  pulverized  earth.  It 
was  this  upward  and  lateral  throw  of  the  earth  which  consumed 
the  180  pounds  of  power.  So  long  as  the  speed  is  not  increased 
to  the  point  where  the  earth  is  thrown  upward  and  laterally,  we 
think  it  is  demonstrated  beyond  all  possibility  of  doubt  that  the 
power  required  in  plowing  is  not  increased  by  an  increase  of 
speed. 

IV.  What  proportion  of  the  total  amount  of  power  consumed 
in  plowing  is  absorbed  by  the  dilferent  parts  of  the  plow,  viz., 
the  sole,  the  land  side,  the  share,  the  mould  board  ? 

Exjieriment  JVb.  38. — The  surface  draught  of  No.  65  (weight, 
130  pounds)  was  78  pounds. 

Experiment  iVb.  15. — The  surface  draught  of  No.  69  (weight, 
140  pounds)  was  118  pounds. 

The  greater  surface  draught  of  the  latter  was  probably  owing 
to  the  greater  breadth  of  the  sole,  measured  from  the  laud  side 
to  the  angle  of  the  feather. 

The  average  draught  of  No.  65,  plowing  seven  inches  deep,  as 
shown  in  experiments  Nos.  49,  50  and  51,  was  512  pounds. 


280  Report  of  the  Special  Coiimittee. 

The  mould-board  was  removed  from  No.  65,  and  the  plow  was 
made  to  run  seven  inches  deep,  with  the  following  results: 


No.  of  ex- 
periments. 

Draught, 
pounds. 

REMARKS 

109 

110 

478 
485 

)  Average  of  one  hundred  and  ninth  and  one  hundred 
3      tenth  experiments,  482  pounds. 

The  consumption  of  power  by  the  mould-board  would  thus 
appear  to  be  482  —  512  :=  30  pounds,  or  5,8  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
amount;  the  consumption  by  the  sole,  14.5  per  cent  of  the  whole 
amount. 

In  Mr.  Morton's  experiments,  10  per  cent  of  the  whole  power 
was  consumed  in  turning  the  furrow,  which  is  very  small,  but  4.2 
per  cent  less  than  our  experiments  would  indicate.  In  Mr.  Pusey's 
experiments,  50  per  cent  of  the  power  was  consumed  in  what  he 
calls  surface  draught;  but  it  must  be  observed  that  this  was 
obtained  by  running  the  plow  through  an  empty  furrow,  and 
embraces  the  friction  of  the  land  side  as  well  as  of  the  sole,  whereas 
ours  was  obtained  by  simply  allowing  the  plow  to  run  over  the 
top  of  the  ground,  and  we  therefore  obtained  the  friction  of  the 
sole  without  being  complicated  by  the  land  side. 

The  plows  which  we  used  were  so  constructed  that  the  land 
side  could  not  be  detached  from  the  share,  and  we  were,  there- 
fore, unable  to  determine  the  power  required  by  the  land  side 
and  the  share  separately. 

The  power  required  to  draw  the  plow  through  a  furrow  seven 
inches  deep  was,  as  we  have  seen,  512  pounds.  Power  absorbed 
by  the  sole,  77  pounds;  power  absorbed  by  the  mould-board,  30 
pounds.  Now,  if  we  assume  with  Mr.  Pusey,  that  the  sole  and 
land  side  together  consume  50  per  cent  of  the  whole  power,  then 
50  —  1.45  =  35.5  per  cent,  which  is  absorbed  by  the  land  side; 
therefore,  the  poAver  consumed  by  the  land  side  is  179  pounds, 
leaving  for  the  power  required  for  share  and  coulter  226  pounds. 

V.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  coulter  on  draught  ? 

Mr.  Stephens  has  stated  the  result  of  a  very  remarkable  experi- 
ment tried  by  him  to  ascertain  the  influence  of  the  coulter  upon 
the  draught.  He  adjusted  a  plow  Avith  a  coulter  which  projected 
seven  inches  beloAv  the  sole  of  the  ploAv,  and  having  adjusted  the 
hook  of   the  Avhitfle-trees  in  the  l)ridle,  so  that  the  sole  would 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials.  281 

swim  freely  on  the  surface  without  any  tendency  to  dip  into  the 
ground,  he  proceeded  to  measure  the  surface  draught  and  the 
cutting  action  of  the  coulter  seven  inches  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  The  draught  in  this  case  was  3(34  pounds.  The 
draught  when  the  coulter  was  removed  and  the  plow  was  drawn 
over  the  surface  of  the  ground  was  112  pounds,  which,  being 
deducted  from  the  whole  draught,  leaves  252  pounds  as  the 
draught  of  the  coulter.  Mr.  Stephens  further  states,  that  a  well 
trimmed  plow,  turning  a  furrow  seven  inches  deep  and  ten  inches 
broad,  was  at  Avork  in  the  same  field,  the  draught  of  which  was 
.only  364  pounds.  The  same  plow,  after  the  coulter  was  removed, 
was  put  to  plow  a  furrow  seven  inches  by  ten  inches,  and  its 
draught  was  also  364  pounds.  It  Avould,  therefore,  appear  from 
this  experiment  that  the  surface  draught,  and  the  coulter  running 
seven  inches  into  the  ground,  required  as  much  power  as  it  does  to 
turn  a  complete  furrow  seven  inches  by  ten  inches. 

Expermient  iVo.  111. — We  desired  to  verify  this  experiment, 
and  we  accordingly  affixed  a  coulter  which  had  been  specially 
prepared  for  the  purpose  to  No.  65,  so  that  it  projected  six  inches 
below  the  sole.  The  bridle  of  the  plow  was  not  long  enough  to 
enable  us  to  bring  it  into  proper  trim,  so  as  to  prevent  it  from 
running  into  the  ground,  but  finally,  by  attaching  a  chain  to  the 
guides  of  the  wheel  it  worked  very  satisfactorily.  The  draught 
(including  the  surface  draught)  was  296  pounds;  deducting  the 
surface  draught,  which  is  77  pounds,  we  have  219  pounds  for  the 
power  consumed  by  the  coulter,  which  is  33  pounds  less  than  Mr. 
Stephens  found;  but  as  his  coulter  ran  one  inch  deeper  than  ours, 
and  would  therefore  necessarily  consume  more  power,  the  agree- 
ment is  quite  as  close  as  could  be  expected. 

Experiment  JSfo.  112. — We  then  removed  the  coulter,  and 
plowed  a  furrow  six  inches  deep  and  eleven  inches  wide.  The 
draft  was  now  417  pounds,  or  121  pounds  more  than  was  required 
for  the  surface  draught  of  the  plow,  and  to  cut  six  inches  into  the 
ground. 

In  order  to  complete  this  experiment  on  the  influence  of  the 
coulter,  we  should  have  plowed  a  few  furrows  of  the  same  size, 
with  the  coulter  adjusted  in  the  ordinary  way;  but  the  importance 
of  the  experiment  escaped  our  attention  at  the  moment. 

Experiment  JSfo.  113. — We  thought  of  it  afterwards,  and  tried 
the  experiment,  but  we  were  at  that  time  plowing  in  a  denser  soil, 
and  the  comparison  was,  therefore,  not  exact.    The  draught  in  the 


282  Report  of  the  Special  Committee. 

soil  where  we  tried  it  w^as  443  pounds,  or  26  pounds  more  than  it 

was  without  a  coulter.     We  record  the  experiment  exactly  as  it 

was  made,  leaving  each  one  to  draw  his  own  conclusions;  but,  in  our 

judgment,  although  the  use  of  a  coulter  in  sod  ground  makes  much 

better  work,  it  does  not  have  much  effect  on  the  draught  in  any  way. 

This  opinion  must,  however,  be  modified  with  respect  to  the 

swivel  plows,  which  evidently  worked  much  more  easily  with  a 

coulter,  as  appears  by  comparing  the  results  of  experiments  Nos. 

9'  10  and  11:  p,„„^^ 

Experiments  Nos.  9  and  10 469 

Experiment  No.  11 582 

Difference  in  favor  of  coulter 113 

It  does  not  appear  from  our  experiments  that  the  depth  of  the 
coulter  in  the  soil,  so  long  as  it  does  not  run  below  the  sole  of  the 
plow,  affects  the  draught.  (See  experiments  Nos.  12,  13  and  14.) 
But,  if  the  coulter  is  used,  our  experiments  show  very  decidedly 
that  much  depends  upon  its  being  in  a  proper  condition.  On 
comparing  the  average  of  the  fifty-sixth,  fifty-seventh  and  fifty- 
eighth  experiments  (545  pounds)  with  the  average  of  the  sixtieth 
aiid  sixty-first  (512  pounds),  it  will  be  seen  that  33  pounds  were 
saved  by  the  use  of  a  sharp  coulter. 

It  was  not  found  that  the  rake  of  the  coulter  made  any  material 
difference  when  plowing  among  fibrous  roots,  but  it  became  neces- 
sary to  give  it  more  rake  when  plowing  among  rhizomes^  such  as 
quack  roots.  This  fact  was  well  exemplified  in  experiments  sixty 
and  sixty-one  (512  pounds).  The  rake  was  then  increased  very 
considerably  in  experiments  sixty-two  to  sixty-five  (452  pounds), 
showing  a  reduction  in  power  of  59  pounds.  On  examining  the 
edge  of  the  cutter  it  was  found  that  there  was  a  rough  wire  edge 
on  it,  and  it  was  then  rubbed  down  smooth  with  a  scythe-stone, 
and  the  draught  fell,  in  the  sixty-sixth  and  sixty-seventh  experi- 
ments, to  422  pounds.  It  was  then  found  that  the  coulter  had 
slipped  and  lost  most  of  the  rake  that  had  been  given  to  it  during 
the  last  two  experiments.  It  was  again  adjusted  properly,  and 
from  the  sixty-eighth  to  the  seventy-first  experiment  the  draught 
w^as  389  pounds.  These  experiments  show  a  reduction  in  draught 
of  156  pounds  by  putting  the  coulter  in  proper  order. 

VI.  Does  the  skim  plow  consume  more  or  less  power  than  the 
coulter  ? 


Supplementary  Plow  Trials.  283 

Experiment  jSfo.  114 — No.  (59  was  furnished  with  a  coulter  and 
a  stubble  mould-board,  the  furrow  being  nine  inches  deep  and 
twelve  inches  wide.  The  draught  of  the  plow,  thus  adjusted,  was 
729  pounds. 

Experiment  JSFo.  115. — The  coulter  was  then  withdrawn  from 
the  plow,  and  a  skim  plow  was  placed  on  the  beam  and  set  to 
work  with  a  furrow  of  the  same  size;  draught,  659  pounds,  show- 
ing a  difference  of  70  pounds  in  favor  of  the  skim  plow.  These 
experiments  are  believed  to  give  a  sufficient  answer  to  the  question. 

VII.  What  is  the  elasticity  of  different  soils  ? 

We  did  not  try  this  experiment  as  fully  as  it  deserves,  as  we 
found  it  would  require  more  time  and  expense  to  do  so  than  we 
could  well  afford;  but  we  performed  it  carefully  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  field,  which  differed  considerably  in  consistency. 

Experiment  No.  116. — Eeferring  to  the  report  of  the  judges  of 
the  Utica  trial  for  the  method  of  making  it,  we  have  to  state  that, 
with  a  furrow  eleven  inches  deep  and  sixteen  inches  broad,  the 
upper  part  of  the  slice  in  the  most  tenacious  part  of  the  field 
would  stretch  seven  and  a  half  inches  beyond  the  lower  portion 
before  breaking;  in  the  least  tenacious  part  it  would  stretch  tour 
and  three-quarter  inches;  and  soils  of  intermediate  tenacity  would 
stretch  in  proportion. 

Experiment  No.  117. — The  stretch  diminished  according  to  the 
shallowness  of  the  furrow  slice.  At  four  inches  deep  it  would 
not  stretch  much  more  than  an  inch  in  the  toughest  part  of  the 
field,  and  in  the  loosest  part  it  would  not  much  exceed  half  an 
inch.  At  six  inches  deep  it  stretched  two  and  a  half  inches,  and 
at  eight  inches  deep,  a  little  over  three  inches. 

This  great  difterence  in  the  elasticity  of  soils  shows  how  impos- 
sible it  is  to  make  any  one  plow  which  shall  work  equally  well  in 
all  soils.  If  it  has  a  sufficient  twist  to  break  the  least  tenacious 
soils,  it  will  utterly  fail  to  disintegrate  those  which  are  more 
tenacious.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  enough  sharpness  of  twist 
to  disintegrate  the  most  tenacious  soils,  it  will  cause  a  great  waste 
of  power  when  used  in  less  tenacious  soils.  All  that  can  be 
reasonably  asked  of  a  plowmaker  is  that,  a  soil  and  depth  of 
furrow  being  given,  he  shall  make  a  plow  which  will  disintegrate 
it  most  thoroughly  with  the  least  expenditure  of  power.  It  by 
no  means  follows  that  it  will  be  the  best  plow  in  any  other 
soil? 


284  Report  of  the  Special  Cojlmittee. 

VIII.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  wheel  on  draught  ? 

We  are  ashamed  to  be  obliged  to  state  that  we  quite  overlooked 
this  part  of  our  programme,  and  are  therefore  unable  to  give  an 
experimental  answer  to  this  question. 

IX.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  plowman  on  draught  ? 

We  have  already  answered  this  question  incidentally  in  the 
earlier  portions  of  this  report.  In  some  cases,  where  he  was 
obliged  to  exert  his  force  through  a  lever  to  counteract  a  tendency 
to  irregularity,  in  consequence  of  a  maladjustment  of  the  parts, 
the  extra  power  required  rose  up  to  115  pounds.  In  all  cases  the 
lightest  draught  was  shown  where  the  plow  ran  with  the  least 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  plowman. 

We  cannot  close  our  report  of  these  trials  without  the  expres- 
sion of  our  sincere  thanks  to  Gov.  Holbrook  and  Mr.  Joel  Nourse 
for  the  very  valuable  assistance  which  they  rendered  to  us,  without 
which  our  labors  would  have  been  much  less  fruitful. 

JOHN  STANTON  GOULt), 
HENRY  WATERMAN, 

Committee. 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Alden  &  Co.,  cultivator 254 

Alger,   Cyrus,   annealing    cast    iron 

plows,  1839 117 

American,  early  plow 65 

Berkshire  plow,  preferred  by  TuU..  .  17 

Brand's  (Suffolk)  plow 22 

Burch,  L.  D.,  Swivel  plow 249 

Burden,  Henry,  plow 90 

Burrall,  T.  D.,  patent  for  diminishing 

friction  of  land  side,  1843 117 

Carbonic  acid  a  solvent 143 

Carpenter,  Levi 101 

Caschrom  (British  plow) 9 

Centre  draught  (Mears' invention). .  100 

(Prouty  &  Mears) 165 

Chapman    &    Barnum,    device     for 

diminishing  friction  of  land  side..  127 

Chenoweth,  R.  B.,  patent «.  71 

Chinese  plow 13 

Conkling,  James  H 151 

Coulter,  devices  for  clearing 200 

draughtof 182 

elevation  and  set  of 183 

Mr.  Stephens'  experiments  on 

draught  of 182 

varieties  of  form  and  attach- 
ment   180 

Cultivators,  Alden  &  Co 254 

Ford  &  Howe's 259 

Hawks' 256 

McQueston's 261 

Phifer's 256 

Rules  for  trial 208 

Davis,  Gideon,  patent  and  construc- 
tion   72 

Deep  plowing,  effect  of 146 

Denver,  John,  patented  a  plow  1803.  69 

Ditching  machine 243 

for  under-draining 245 

Draught    of    plows     (see     "  Plows, 

draught  of") 154 

Draught  of  plows,  planes  of  resistance  167 

point  of  resistance 168 

angle  of 169 

experiments  on 177 

ditference  of  plowmen 179 

1820 89 

Dutcher,  J.,  letter  on  the  "  Historj'^ 

of  the  Plow  " 94 


PAGE. 

Dynamometer  at  trial  of  plows,  1820.  89 

East  Indian  plow 10 

East  Lothian  plow 35 

Egyptian  plow,  ancient 8 

now  in  use 12 

Elasticity  of  furrow  slice 153 

English  plow,  A.  D.  1470 13 

Fast-walking  draught  beasts,  value  of  165 

Fertility,  causes  of 136 

Fords  &  Howe,  cultivator 259 

Four-coultered  plow 18 

Four  coulters,  use  of 18 

French  (Canadian)  plow 16 

Grant's  lona  plow 129 

Handley,  Mr.,  experiments  between 

Swivel  plows  and  wheel  plows 177 

Harris,  Hezekiah,  patent  1804 69 

1808 71 

Harris,  Zadock,  pat.  and  specification  82 

Harrows,  rules  for  trial 207 

J.E.Morgan's 251 

F .  Nishwitz's 253 

Hawks',  N.,  Ditching  plow 243 

cultivator 256 

Heath,  E.,  Ditching  machine 245 

Hingham's  Self-holding  plow 91 

Hitchcock,  David,  plow,  1823 91 

Holbrook,  F.  F.,  method 129 

Horton,  Frost 101 

lona  plow,  Grant's 129 

Jacobs,  James,  patent  1834 107 

Jefferson,  Mr  ,constructionof  hisplow  23 

objections  to  the  same 32 

suggestions   of   cast    iron   for 

mould-boards 33 

suggestion  of  two  wedges 22 

Klay,  John,  patent  72 

Kiliuer,  J.  &  A.,  invention 200 

Knox,  James  A.,  patent  1852 117 

Lanarkshire  plow 50 

McCorraick's  plow 99 

McQueston's  cultivator 251 

Mead's  patent,  1863 127 

Mears,  John 100 

Mexican  plow 12 

Mid-Lothian  plow 51 

Minor  &  Horton 101 

Minor,  Truman 101 

Modern  English  plows 59 


286 


Index. 


PAGE. 

Morgan  &.  Harris'  patent 72 

Morgan,  J.  E.,  harrow 251 

Morton,  J.  C,  experiments  in  draught 

of  plows 157,  161.  164 

Mould-board.  F.  F.  Holbrook's .'  128 

G.  Davis' 72 

Mr.  Jefferson's 23,32,  33 

Rham's 62 

should  be  adapted  to  the  soil.  150 

Stephens' construction 51 

twist  of,  splits  the  furrow  slice  151 
Newbold,  Chas.,  first  cast-iron  plow 

in  America 66 

New  York  State  Agricultural  Society, 

trial  draught  plows,  1850 158 

Nishwitz,  F.,  harrow 253 

Nourse,  Joel 91 

Eagle  plow 93 

Patrick,  M.,  patent 72 

Peacock.  David,  patent  1807 69 

1817 72 

Pease,  Horace,  patent 72 

Peekskill  plow 101 

Phifer's  cultivator 256 

Pickering,  T.,  letter  on  lines  of  the 

plow,  1820 69 

Plants,  growth  and  food  of 136 

Piatt,  H.  M.,  Screw-Auger  plow,  '58.  127 

Plow  of  Asia  Minor 8 

Berkshire 17 

Brands' 22 

British 9 

Burch's 249 

Burden,  Henry   90 

Chinese 13 

Collins  &  Co.,  B  14 213 

Collins  &  Co.,  C  3 234 

East  Indian 10 

East  Lothian 35 

Egyptian,  ancient 8 

now  in  use 12 

English,  A.  D.  1470 13 

Four-coultered 18 

French  (Canadian) 16 

Grant's  lona 129 

Hawks'  Ditching 243 

Hingham's  Self-holding 91 

Hitchcock,',  David s  91 

Holbrook's  No.  65 210 

No.  66 213 

No.  69 224 

No.  6  Swivel 248 

Mr.  Jefferson's. 23 

Lanarkshire 50 

McCormick's 99 

Mexican 12 

Mid-Lothian 51 

Modern  English 59 

Newbold's,  Charles 66 

Nourse's,  Joel,  Eagle 93 

Peekskill 101 

Front's  Ditching 243 

Piatt,  H.  M.,  Screw-Auger  . . .  127 

Roman 9 

Rotherham 16 

Saxon,  eleventh  century 14 


Plow,  Side-hill 248 

Small,  James 35 

Steel,  for  alluvial  land 246 

Sod  and  Subsoil 239 

Webster,  Daniel 103 

Wilkie's 50 

Wood,  Jethroj 72 

improved  1819 84 

Plows,  draught  of 154 

comparison,  different  soils 157 

J.  C.  Morton's  experiments  . .  157 

161,  164 

Philip  Pusey's  experiments. . .  155 

161,  163,  177 

ratio  to  depth 160 

ratio  to  velocity 163 

trials  of,  by  N.T.S.A.S.,  1850.  158 
(See"  Supplementary  Trials.") 

list  of  entries 209 

rules  for  trials 205 

Sod,  for  stiff  soils 210 

Stubble,  for  stiff  soils 211 

Plowing,  adjustment  for  turning  under 

weeds,  etc 198 

attachment  of  the  team 193 

crested  furrow 89 

flat  furrow 191 

lap  furrows,  use  of 185 

proportion  of  depth  to 

width 187 

left  hand 201 

Plowing,  objects  of,  enumerated       .  148 

sod  and  subsoil 190 

stubble 192 

without  dead  furrows 191 

Programme  of  trials 204 

Prouty,  David 100 

Pulverization 149 

Pusey,  Philip,  experiments  on  draught 

of  plows 155,  161,  163,  177 

Ransome,  Robert,  improvement 60 

case-hardened  or  chilled  shares  60 

Rham,  Rev.  W.  L.,  lines  for  plow. . .  62 

Roberts',  M.  L.,  invention 127 

Roman  plow 9 

Roots  of  plants,  extent  of 144 

Rotherham  plow 16 

Routt's,  A.  P.,  Ditching  plow 243 

Rules  of  trials 204 

Saxon  plow,  eleventh  century 14 

Seltz ,  John,  patent 72 

Small's,  James,  plows 35 

Smith,  Aaron,  patent  1844 Ill 

Col.  John,  cast  share 68 

Soil,  absorbing  power 139 

mechanical  condition 139 

deepening  of 218 

Soils,  Vcelcker's  experiments 139 

Way's  experiments 139 

Stephens'.  Mr.,  construction  of  mould- 
board  51 

experiments     on     draught    of 

coulter 182 

Stevens,  Edwin  A.,  improvement..  .  89 

Stubble,  to  turn  under 198 

Subsoil ,  attachment  to  plow 241 


Index. 


287 


PAGE. 

Supplementary  trials 2()3 

points  of .   263 

draught  experiments  to  de- 
termine increase  of  power 
for  each  inch  of  depth.  265-271 

remarks  on  same 272-276 

trials  to  determine  increase 
of  power  for  each  inch  of 

width 277 

to  determine  increase  of  power 

for  increase  of  velocity. 278,  279 
to  determine  the  proportion  of 
power  absorbed  by  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  plow.   279,  280 
to  determine     the      influence 
of    the   coulter  upon   the 

draught  280-282 

to  determine  relative  draughts 

of  Skim  plow  and  coulter.  282 
to  determine  the  elasticity  of 
different  soils 283 


PAGE. 

Swan,  John,  patent 72 

Swing  plow,  advantages  of 175 

Tousley,  Robert,  patent 72 

Tull,  Jethro.  experiment  on  range  of 

roots  of  plants 145 

Vcelcker's  experiments 139 

Way's   deductions   as   to  separating 

power  of  soils 141 

"Webster,  Daniel,  his  plow 103 

Weeds  and  stubble,  to  bury 198 

Wheatley,  R.  J.,  subsoil  attachment.  241 
Wheel  of  the  plow 173 

mode  of  attaching 179 

Whiflfle-trees,  observations  on 194 

for  three  horses 195 

Wiley,  James 101 

Wilkie's  plow 50 

Witherow  &  Pierce,  patent  1839 114 

Wood,  Jethro,  patent 72 

improved  plow,  1819 84 


LIST  OF  FIGURES. 


Fig.  p^'^e- 

1.  Plow  of  Asia  Minor    8 

2.  Ancient  Egyptian  plow 8 

3.  Roman  plow   9 

4.  5.   Form  of  plow  as   used   by 

Cincinnatus  and  Cato 9 

6.  Caschrom  (British  plow) 10 

7.  East  Indian  plow 11 

8.  Egyptian  plow  now  in  use  ....  12 

9.  Mexican  plow 13 

10.  Chinese  plow 13 

11.  English  plow,  A.  D.  1470 14 

12.  Saxon  plow  of  eleventh  century  14 

13.  French  (Canadian)  plow 15 

14.  Land  side  of  Rotherham  plow.  17 

15.  Furrow  side  same 16 

16.  Bridle,  &c.,  same 17 

17.  Brand's  (Suflblk)  plow 22 

18  to  27.  Diagrams  illustrating  Mr. 

Jefferson's  formation  of  mould- 
board  24  to  31 

28.  East  Lothian  plow 35 

29.  Body  frame  of  the  same 39 

30.  Sole  bar  of  the  same  inverted.  39 

31.  Vertical  section  same 40 

32  to  37.  Share  of  the  same 41 

38.  Form  of  sock  plate  same 42 

39,  40,  41.  Sole  shoe  same 43 

42.  Edge  view  of  the  coulter,  same  43 

43.  Side  view  of  the  coulter,  same  43 

44.  Plan  of  bridle  of  same 44 

45.  Side  view  same 44 

46.  Elevation  of  the  body  in  work- 
ing position,  same 45 

47.  Horizontal  sole  shoe,  same. ...  45 

48.  Diagram  of  the  formation  of  the 
mould-board    46 

49.  Diagram          do          do          do  49 

50.  Plow  staff 51 

51.  Hammer  nut  key 51 


Fig.  pa°e. 

52.  Diagram  illustrating  formation 

block  for  mould-board 57 

53  a.  Shares,  showing  chilled  parts    61 
53   b.  do  do  61 

54.  Mortised  shoe 61 

55.  Cast  plow  frames 61 

56.  Mould-board  and  share  show- 
ing attachment  to  the  frame  . .     82 

57  to  60.  Diagram  showing  Rham's 

formation  of  mould-board. .   63,  64 

61.  Newbold's  plow 67 

62.  Chenoweth's  plow 71 

63.  Harris'  plow,  1819 82 

64.  Wood's  plow 85 

65.  Burden's  plow 90 

66.  Nourse's  Eagle  No.  2 94 

A.  B.  Dutchers'  diagrams  of  forma- 
tion of  mould-board 98 

Daniel  Webster's  plow,  land  side. .  .  104 
Daniel  Webster's  plow,  furrow  side.  104 
Daniel  Webster's  plow,  dimensions  .   105 

67.  Jacobs'  plow 108 

68.  Diagram  of  Smith's  Michigan 
plow Ill 

69.  Diagram  of  the  right  hand  or 
face  view  of  Smith's  mould- 
board  112 

69  a  to  69/.  Parts  of  the  same  ...  113 
[Figs.  9,  12,  14,  15,  16,  17,  referred 
to  on  page  114,  are  not  reproduced 
in  this  report,  but  all  that  is  neces- 
sary for  the  description  is  con- 
tained in  figs.  69  a  to  69  b,  p.  113.] 

70.  Diagram  of  Witherow  &  Pierce's 

mould-board 115 

71 .  Diagram  of  generating  curve. .    115 

72.  Elevation  of  Gibbs'  plow 126 

73.  Mead's  share  and  mould-board  128 
—   fig.  1.  lona  turning  jilow 129 


288 


Index. 


Fig.  page. 

73.  fig.  2.  Inclined  plane  or  share 

of  same 130 

—  fig.  3.  Transformed  No.  1,  lona  130 

—  fig.  4.  Great  Trench  No.  1    do     131 

—  fig.  5.  Great  Trench  No.  2    do     131 

—  fig.  6.  Trenching  plow  for  loams 

and  clay,    do    132 

—  fig.  7.  Large  trenching  plow  . .  132 

—  fig.  1  to  8.  Diagrams    illustra- 

ting the  operations   of 
trenching  plow  . .    133,  134 
74  to  79.  Diagrams  illustrating  frac- 
ture of  furrow  slice 150-152 

80.  Section  of  Prouty  &  Mears' 
plow,  showing  obliquity  of  land 
side 168 

81.  Diagram  of  line  of  draught. .. .   170 

82.  Diagram  showing  increase  of 
resistance  of  wheel 174 

82  to  86.  Forms  of  plow  wheels. .  .   180 
87  to  91.  Coulters 181 

92.  Fin  share 182 

93.  Position  of  coulter,  Prouty  & 
Mears' 184 

94.  95.  Diagrams  of  lap  furrows,  185,  186 
96,  97.  Diagrams  of  rotation  of  fur- 
row slice 188 

98.  Trapezoidal  furrow 190 

99.  Sod  and  subsoil  furrow 191 

100.  Flat  furrow  sod 191 

101.  Stubble  furrow 192 

102.  Holbrook's  sod  and  subsoil  plow  193 
103  Whiffletrees  for  three  horses  . .  195 
104.  Method  of  attaching  three  horses 

in  New  York 196 


Fig.  page. 

105.  Stephens'  method  of  attaching 
four  horses  to  the  plow   197 

106.  Chain  attachment  for   plowing 
under  weeds,  &c 199 

107.  Kilmer's  adjustment  for     do       199 

108.  Device  for  cleaning  the  coulter  199 

109.  Left  hand  plow 201 

—  figs.   1,  2,  3,  4.    Diagrams   for 

plowing  grounds  with- 
out a  dead  furrow,  201,  202 

110.  Holbrook's  No.  66  for  stubble 
lands  in  stifi"  soils 211 

111.  Holbrook's  No.  66 214 

112,113.  Collinsville  plow  214 

Holbrook's  No.  66  sod  plow  217 

114.  Holbrook's  No.  69  stubble  plow  222 

115.  Front  and  rear  standard  of  same  281 

116.  Parts  of  the  same 232 

117.  Holbrook's  No.  69  sod  and  sub- 
soil     239 

118.  Holbrook's  No.  69  sod 241 

119.  Hawks' ditching  plow 243 

120.  do  do  as  cultivator  245 

121.  Heath's  ditching  machine 247 

122.  Holbrook's    swing  or   side-hill 
plow 248 

123.  Diagram  of  Burch's  share 249 

124.  Morgan's  harrow  252 

125.  Alden's  cultivator  255 

126.  do        do      as  corn-marker  255 

127.  Phifer's  two-horse  cultivator..   257 

128.  Fords  &  Howe,  cultivator 260 

129.  McQueston's    improved    culti- 
vator    262 


PLATES. 

PAGE. 

PLATE         I.— Fig.  1.  Berkshire  plow 18 

"              Fig.  2.  Four-coultered  plow,  with  parts  of  same 19 

PLATE        II.— East  Lothian  or  Small's  plow 36 

PLATE      III. — Anal3'tical  section  of  mould-boards: — East  Lothian  plow;   Mid- 
Lothian  plow ;  Berwickshire  plow ;   Lanarkshire  plow 46 

PLATE      IV. — Analytical  sections  of  mould-boards: — "Western  Fifeshire  plow  ; 

Ransom's  F  F  new  mould-board 53 

PLATE        V. — Howard's  and  Ransome's  plows 63 

PLATE      VI.— Davis'  plows 72 

PLATE    VII.— McCormick's  plow , 99 

PLATE  VIII  — Knox's  forming  mould-boards  of  plows 118 


DIGEST  OF  THE 

LIBRARY     REGULATIONS. 


No  book  shall  be  taken  from  the  Library  without  the 
record  of  the  Librarian. 

No  person  shall  be  allowed  to  retain  more  than  five  vol- 
umes at  any  one  time,  unless  by  special  vote  of  the 
Council. 

Books  may  be  kept  out  one  calendar  month;  no  longer 
without  renewal,  and  renewal  may  not  be  granted  more  than 
twice. 

A  fine  of  five  cents  per  day  incun-ed  for  every  volume  not 
returned  within  the  time  specified  by  the  rules. 

The  Librarian  may  demand  the  return  of  a  book  after 
the  expiration  of  ten  days  from  the  date  of  borrowing. 

Certain  books,  so  designated,  cannot  be  taken  from  the 
Library  without  special  permission. 

All  books  must  be  returned  at  least  two  weeks  previous 
to  the  Aimual  Meeting. 

Each  member  is  responsible  for  all  injury  or  loss  of  books 
chara;ed  to  his  name. 


